Neurodegenerative Diseases

Question: Write an essay on Neurodegenerative Diseases. Answer: Introduction: Neurodegenerative diseases are chronic and fatal illnesses that affect most of activities of human being. This group includes diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson', huntington's and CZJ disease etc. Most of neurodegenerative disease in humans is caused by protein misfolding and aggregation. Proteins and its folding: Proteins are the molecules which control our most vital cellular functions in the human body. To function properly, a protein must first fold into its stable three-dimensional structure, sometimes tertiary and quaternary conformations (Dill and MacCallum, 2012). Fig 1A. Figure 1A: 3-D Showing structure of folded protein. Protein composed of mainly 100-600 amino acids in the polypepetide chain. To decrease size of folded, large protein are divided into domains which are fold seperately. Inside of cell, structure is complex and it contained proteins and other macromolecules (Christopher M., 2004). The mechanics behind folding process is thermodynamically driven by hydrophobic effect. As water removes from one amino acid, while reacting with another and forms a hydrophobic core, as hydrophilic site of amino acids remain at the surface. Thus, bigger size protein collapse into a globular structure, which results in reduction of conformation (Figure 1B). During rearrangement step correct amino acid are attached which form protein with most stable and biologically active conformation. Additional factors are responsible witjin the cell which assist in the folding process, folding catalysts and molecular chaperones (Hartl U., 2010). Figure 1B: Showing compaction of protein. To make biologically active, protein need unique 3-D structure which is acquired by the folding process. A small mistake while folding process, resulted in misfolding of protein structure, which can be dangerous. However, inside the cell, conditions are highly sticky, therefore there is problem in folding protein by themselves and requires additional help from special kind of protein called chaperons (Tapan K., 2006). Chaperones: Molecular chaperons assist other protein to achieve active 3-D conformation, this preventing misfolding and aggregation of protein during folding, thus increasing the folding efficiency and decreases unwanted intermediated which lead to damaged protein (e.g. aggregation). Protein sometimes cannot achieve stable state, due to occurrence of mutation in the amino acid sequence or may be due to error in folding step. This proteins are further called as misfolded protein because they went through degradation pathways. This type of proteins go through quality control system, which formed from molecular chaperons and ubiquitin proteasome system (Berke SJS., 2003). Quality control system plays a crucial role in the function and survival of cell. A class of chaperone is calnexin, forms a part of quality control system, which recognises abnormal folded proteins and removes distorted protein. Some class of quality control chaperone associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), e.g. calnexin and calreticulin, BiP and ERp 57 (Swanton E., 2003), which detect misfolded protein and retain them in endoplasmic reticulum and allow only correct protein to reach the cytosol. (Welch WJ., 2003). Ubiquitin proteasome pathway is important part of quality control in the cell. Disturbance in the UPP, caused misfold in the protein structure in the endoplasmic reticulum and thus function of enzyme is lost due to ubiquitin conjugation and deconjugation pathway. This alter the ubiquitin proteasome pathway and results in aggregation of protein in the cell. Aggregated protein forms an amyloid-like structure, which is a serious cause of different types of degenerative diseases (Berke SJS., 2003 and Tapan K., 2006). Protein misfolding disorders: Protein misfolding and aggregation is an important problem. During synthesis of protein, when protein fails to folds correctly, protein lost its biological function. This happened because of mutation in the amino acid sequence. The disease related to this problem are cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer's disease, p53 cancer and Parkinson's disease (table no. 1). Table no. 1: Showing various diseases related to protein misfolding and aggregation. Protein misfolding disorders occurs because of mutation in the polypeptide chain. Misfolded protein caused loss of biological function in cystic fibrosis or harmful gain in function as in neurodegenerative disease. Proteins aggregates sometimes converted into fibrilliar structure contain with plenty of H bonds, which is insoluble. These protein aggregates are known as amyloids and its deposition is in plaque like structure form. Diseases related to protein misfolding and aggregation: From last two decades, protein misfolding is research topic for most of the researchers. As according to Susan Lindquist, protein misfolding is related to many half of the human disease, e.g. P53 mediated cancer also related to misfolding protein. Many cancers and protein folding diseases are due to mutation in protein. Structural changes causes aggregation of protein, thus result in toxicity and cell death. According to chaperone overload hypothesis, with aging, misfolded proteins gets accumulated that prevents molecular chaperone to repair mutation in the polypeptide chain, which might causes disease. According to study, result showed that yield of stable protein from refolding is low, as intermediates forms between folding reaction (Csermely P., 2001). These stable folded intermediates are known as off pathway intermediates, which forms insoluble aggregates, that may be a serious cause of different degenerative diseases. Main cause of most protein conformation disease is formation of aggregates caused by destability in alpha helical structure and side by side formation of beta sheets. Beta sheet forms between alternative peptide strands. Peptide strands are linked by H bond between aligned pleated structure. Thus, pleated strand linked to another with beta linkage. This beta linkage are donor sites which bind to pleated sheet and beta sheet of next is acceptor site (Fig. 2) (Tapan K., 2006). Figure 2: showing amyloid formation. Amyloid formation causes many degenerative disorders: Chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorders are characterised by loss of neurons in motor and sensory area. Occurrence of brain lesions is most common feature among neurodegenerative disorders, which are formed by the accumulation of misfolded or aggregated proteins. Some of the examples related to aggregation are, Alzheimer's disease which is neurodegenerative disorder of brain in elders, which causes impaired behaviour and loss of memory. This occurs due to A and fibilliar tangles deposition in the extracellular areas of the brain. This A proteins deposit in the hippocampus, disturbing neural network and results in cell death and memory loss. These aggregates are called as amyloids. They are formed from small, mild mis folded protein called soluble oligomers and is highly toxic misfolded protein (fig. 3) (Hartl U., 2010). Figure 3: Showing cross section of normal and Alzheimers brain. In Parkinson;'s disease protein gets collected in the intracellular spaces. It is characterised by muscle rigidity, posture instability and tremors while resting. The main cause of heredity disorder is mutation (Fig. 4). In variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob syndrome disease may be because of conformation change from alpha helix wild protein PrPc gene to beta sheet dominant PrPSc gene, which lead to protein misfolding and aggregation. Figure 4: Structure of amyloid fibrils deposited in the neurons in parkinson's disease. Protein misfolding caused lack of biological functions which leads to fatal disease: 1- antitrypsin deficiency main reason is mutation, this is done by single base pair substitution (Gul342-Lys) in the gene. Protein misfolding during synthesis of protein, initiated polymerisation reaction, this lead to protein aggregates with in the cell. 1- antitrypsin (serpin) is a proteolytic inhibitor enzyme with serine amino acid in its active site, binds to proteinase target molecule and and caused conformation changes in the molecule. Therefore, there is an aggregation of protein, which occurred through beta sheet interaction with another serpin molecule. The beta strands blocker prevent this aggregation of proteins. The p53 cancer is also example of misfolding disorders. P53 is a tumor suppressor protein, also called as sequence specific transcription factor, which maintain genomic integrity. It occurs through mutation in the gene. In normal condition, p53 levels are low, but after mutation when DNA gets damage, the levels of p53 rises. The function of p53 is that, it binds to regulatory sites, and starts producing protein that stops cell division and this keeps on working until, the damaged DNA gets repaired. If damaged is severe than, it initiates programmed cell death or apoptosis, thus completely removal of damaged DNA. When mutation occurs, it loses it biological function and caused cancer ((Tapan K., 2006). Reference: 1. Agorogiannis EI. (2004). Protein misfolding in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 30(3):215-24.2. Berke SJS. (2003). Protein aggregation and the ubiquitin proteasome pathway: gaining the UPPer hand on neurodegeneration. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 13: 253-261.3. Chaudhuri TK, Paul S. (2006). Protein-misfolding diseases and chaperone-based therapeutic approaches. FEBS J. 273(7):1331-49.4. Christopher M. (2004). Principles of protein folding, misfolding and aggregation. Seminars in Cell Developmental Biology. 15: 3-16.5. Csermely P. (2001). Chaperone overload is a possible contributor to civilization diseases'. Trends Genet. 17: 701-704.6. Dill K. A., MacCallum J. L. (2012). The protein-folding problem, 50 years on. Science 338, 1042-1046.7. Ellis RJ Pinheiro TJ (2002) Danger - misfolding proteins. Nature. 416: 483-484.8. Gao X. (2008). Quality control of the proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin. 40(7):612-8.9. Gomes CM. (2012 ). Protein misfolding in disease and small molecule therapies. Curr Top Med Chem. 12(22):2460-9.10. Hartl U. (2010). file:///C:/Users/Kalpana%20Singh/Desktop/bm10_Proteinfolding-basetext.pdf.11. Hartl FU. (2011). Molecular chaperones in protein folding and proteostasis. Nature. 475(7356):324-32.12. Julie S. (2014). Mechanisms of protein-folding diseases at a glance. Dis Model Mech. 7(1): 9-14.13. Muchowski PJ. (2002). Protein misfolding, amyloid formation, and neurodegeneration: a critical role for molecular chaperones. Neuron. 35(1). Pp. 9-12.14. Pietzsch J. The importance of protein folding. https://www.nature.com/horizon/proteinfolding/background/importance.html.15. Protein Folds and Protein Fold Classification. https://www.proteinstructures.com/Structure/Structure/protein-fold.html.16. Protein Folding and Processing. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9843/.17. Soto C. (2003). Unfolding the role of protein misfolding in neurodegene rative diseases. Nat Rev Neurosci. 4. Pp. 49-60.18. Soto C. (2013). Protein Misfolding in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Journal of Neurology Translational Neuroscience. https://www.jscimedcentral.com/Neuroscience/Articles/neuroscience-1-1010.pdf.19. Swanton E. (2003). Role of calnexin in the glycan-independent quality control of proteolipid protein. EMBO J. 22: 2948-2958.20. Tapan K. (2006). Protein-misfolding diseases and chaperone-based therapeutic approaches. FEBS Journal. 273: 1331-1349.21. Welch WJ. (2003). Role of quality control pathways in human diseases involving protein misfolding. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 15: 31-38.

Madeline Barnard Essays (307 words) - French Revolution, Jacobins

Madeline Barnard Professor Coffey HS- 102-01 27 September2016 Reign of Terror Short Essay The Reign of Terror started in 1793, Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the twelve men Committee of Public Safety, was the mastermind of this tragic time period. He was a conservative thinker who put his own personal beliefs before everyone else. This led him to be impatience with others. During his reign, he sentenced 238 men, and 31 women to death, while 5,434 individuals sat in prison awaiting trial. (Text) Eventually, Maximilien Robespierre was arrested him self and guillotined. Robespierre justified the use of terror by believing this was the only way to end the war of liberty against tyranny. He deemed that the country of France needed to rebel against tyranny. He insisted that we needed to think of the nation as a whole instead of individual agendas. Another way he justified the use of terror was believing that we must kill our enemies to stay alive. Controlling our enemies was also very important; if we wanted to control them we must use terrorizing tactics. Maximillien Robespierre stated that "virtue, without which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is powerless" (Robespierre). The way I interpret this quote is that without virtue terror holds no power over the people. He also thought that terror was just another form of justice. Lastly, he believed that the only people that deserved protection were the peaceable citizens and he thought that the only citizens in the republic were republicans. I do believe that the reign of terror was nec essary because eventually, it did bring stability after the reign ended. One reason it ended was due to the fact that everyone involved was tried and wanted the bloodshed to end. The reign of Terror in France was an awful time but key to a succeeding government.

How to Inspire Creativity with Technology of Provocation Essays

How to Inspire Creativity with Technology of Provocation Essays How to Inspire Creativity with Technology of Provocation Essay How to Inspire Creativity with Technology of Provocation Essay The technique seeks provocation think things differently, opening the mind to analyze situations from another point of view, and thus find creative solutions. Provocation Technique to Develop Creativity The creativity is a wild beast unlimited, however, often is imprisoned. We all are all creative, and we can all be more every day. You only need to train so that when released, we help find alternatives to solve problems or work on any topic forms. Creativity can be fostered and developed by numerous techniques, including the techniques of provocation . This is to give a boost to this beast, to lead it by a certain path and put it into action. Learn how to develop, to expand our creativity in an entertaining way. What is the art of provocation? The technique of provocation is part of the masterpiece by Edward De Bono, considered the father of lateral thinking. It is based on escape preconceived thought patterns and structured, to find alternative paths to a topic put on trial. These thought patterns are based on those concepts that we take for granted, we take as normal and standardized rules: this is what it is. Do we stop to observe and to question this concept, taken as fixed as a wall. The lack of a creative and less structured analysis is conditioning us not to get out of that thought pattern. And that’s when we apply the provocation which forces us and pushes another way of thinking on that particular topic. The structured thinking There are things we take for granted without even questioning it, in a pattern of thought and preconceived perception. For example, drugs cure, clothing shelter, fire warms. Not that these data are incorrect, but fail to analyze the knowledge of these accurate data: knowing that fire oven warms, we think of the oven as the medium baking food, and nothing more. We can find an everyday example in alternative cleaning products. We know that baking soda is used to make baked fluffy and airy, but with a little attention now also know of its versatile uses in cleaning and renovation of all types of surfaces, including fabrics and upholstery. How is the art of provocation The technique of provocation to encourage creativity works on a particular topic, a problem, a search for new ideas, for creative focus for your workout. The first step in the analysis in question is to determine what fact, data or circumstance are taking for granted. Scan the item or the item as if it were the first time you saw in your life. For example: you think of ideas to improve the user experience on the school bus you drive. Analyze what concepts you’re assuming, without question: the bus takes the children, runs on gasoline, follows a certain path, has ordered seats, has windows on its sides, parents hire you to bring your children to school. Now, take one of these concepts, only one, and generates provocation to renew, to give a new stimulus to thought pattern fostering creativity. For example: parents hire you to take the kids. Provocation (indicated with the word PO) would be: â€Å"PO† I hire parents to let me take their children. From there, follow the ideas, thinking freely and creatively, writing down everything you will happening: I hire children, I pay them for uploading to my bus †¦ I give the children candy when climbing my bus. You have reached a conclusion applies in real life, related to your search for improved user experience small. Example to apply the techniques of provocation Creative Focus: I seek new ideas for a new restaurant. Preconceptions : the restaurant people come, begging for food from a set menu, eat, pay and go. PO: the restaurant go find people, which is a mobile restaurant, the restaurant will house people; the menu is determined by diners without limits, that people bring their own ingredients and recipes, the restaurant count with a lucky market at the entrance where people choose their ingredients; who are the servants who eat the food, a family prepares or choose the family dinner on your right; the restaurant to pay people to go, people to pay serving as a waiter before eating †¦ No absurd ideas, you should write them all, but prove humorous or unrealistic, first the write down, and then analyze them one by one, working them until they become possible solutions or ideas that gesten new concepts to encourage creativity .

Art and Philosophy - Meinongian Issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Art and Philosophy - Meinongian Issue - Essay Example In Meinongan issue, there is an in-depth examination of several issues that arise in view of the connection that there are actually some things and factors which are actually non-existent. Philosophers normally seek to examine the following questions in determining if an object or certain subject is actually not existent: What is the basis or reasons for declaring that certain objects are in fact not existent? Assuming there are any nonexistent objects, what are their kinds and how are they determined? What are the criteria of the characterization of these objects as nonexistent? The position brought by fictions takes a story telling dimension. While a story teller is telling a fictional story the characters are actually his creations. As objects of his creation, a storyteller has the power to give the characters of his story qualities whose existence are not existent in the real world. The imagination of a person normally remains mere imagination. The objects just exist in abstracti on. The theory of intentionality as discussed later normally tells how we can intend our mental ability to view some objects differently. It is a fact that fictional story telling is a narration full of hyperbolic instances and can be said to be an act of pretence. The fictional discourse is discussed further below. Nonexistent objects as a concept Some philosophers, for example, Hume are of the opinion that the concept of nonexistent objects is in itself a paradox1. This stems from the idea that for anything to be declared not to exist is dependent on the fact that it had been initially presupposed to have existed. Such philosophers believe in what can be termed as positive identification of objects. This is to say that we can only identify what we can prove and substantiate. We can never talk of something as nonexistent yet we do not have proof of that. Other philosophers (Kant) explain that whatever exists is actually a real predicate2. He went ahead to explain this using Godâ₠¬â„¢s existence as an analogy. He inferred to the existence of God out of â€Å"ontological proof†. This is out of God’s perfection in creation. He also used other qualities of God such being omnipresent to cement his argument of existence as a real predicate. Assuming that these philosophers are right, this means then that the concept of nonexistent is not real. This is because it can never be a real predicate. Proving nonexistence evidentially is impossible. This therefore draws a conclusion that the concept of nonexistent is to a greater extent a self contradictory concept. In fact some philosophers state that the concept is actually and to some extent a violation of logical semantic flow of grammar. In order to believe in the concept of nonexistent there is need to ignore to some extent the views put across by some philosophers regarding this. Here the view that is adopted depends heavily on the predicate of individuals. This is stemmed from personal conception and what views a person may be having concerning the existence or non existence of an object. For instance, this can be illustrated by sentiments such as â€Å"some white elephants do exist†. From the statement it is inferred that not all white elephants are actually in existence. There are some particular white elephants that do not exist. The idea being stressed here is that in order

Natural Detoxification Using the Niacin Sauna Program Essay

Natural Detoxification Using the Niacin Sauna Program - Essay Example According to Page (1998), "They are gentle, non-invasive, and in almost every case, free of many side effects" (p. 114). Niacin - Sauna Therapy is one such program and it is this program which will be researched and analyzed in this paper. With regard to Niacin-Sauna Therapy, Haas (2004) says "A special detoxification process has been developed to help in the release of chemicals, pesticides, and pharmaceutical drugs" (p. 44). Like any good detoxification program it begins by cleansing noxious elements, rebuilding the loss of nutrients in the process and maintaining a state of good health by fostering good habits pertaining to health and fitness. This program is an intensive program which seeks to flush out the toxins located in fat. It includes a combination of techniques that have detoxifying properties such as a juice diet, exercise, sauna therapy and intake of niacin. "The idea is to cleanse hidden chemicals from fat through juice cleansing, weight loss, niacin therapy, exercise and sweats" (Haas, 2004, p. 44). This is a fledgling program but initial results are encouraging, particularly when followed by individuals who are showing the adverse effects of exposure to pesticides. This process can also be used to wea n addictive individuals from drugs (pharmaceutical as well as recreational types), alcohol and nicotine. It can also be followed in the comfort of home, provided a physician has been consulted and certain precautionary measures are taken. The Rationale and Scientific Evidence behind this Program Niacin is also known as nicotinic acid and vitamin B3. It plays a role in the release of energy from nutrients. It is found in cereals, legumes, liver, poultry, meat, nuts, whole grains, and fish. It can also be taken as a dietary supplement. Research has shown that niacin can effectively reduce cholesterol levels in the blood. High-density lipoprotein (HDL), a form of cholesterol referred to as "good cholesterol" lowers the risk of arteriosclerosis and cardiac arrest. "The researchers cite niacin as the most effective medication for raising HDL cholesterol" (Payne, 2005, p.5). Thus it helps clean out the circulatory system. Further according to Jensen (2000), niacin may be used "to flush the toxins from the organs and peripheral tissues, speed up the elimination process, and reduce production of cholesterol by the liver" (p.103). Therefore it seems fitting that niacin serves as the major component of a detoxification program. Sauna therapy is based on the principles of overheating therapy or hyperthermia. This form of healing has proved beneficial from time immemorial. According to Page (1998), "Slightly raising body temperature speeds up metabolism, inhibits the growth of harmful viruses or bacteria, and literally burns out invading organisms" (p.3). Today, sauna therapy is popular all over the world as a means of ridding the body of toxins. A sauna activates the sweat glands and induces profuse sweating. As the sweat evaporates through the skin, it takes with it potentially harmful substances, while acting as a natural coolant. Thus it may be said that such sweats are therapeutic and have healing properties. This method in addition to removing toxins via the skin uses

Communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Communication - Assignment Example The following constitute the communication plan for Starbucks app. The purpose of this document is to define the communications goals and strategies of Starbucks app project. These strategies and goals are aimed at providing guidance in planning and measuring results of the current and future communication efforts. In addition, this plan will outline the project’s structure and methods of collecting, formatting, screening and distributing the project’s information. The overall objective of this communication plan is to promote the project’s success through meeting the information needs of project stakeholders. The intended audience of Starbucks app project communication plan is the project manager, project sponsor, the project team and any other stakeholders in the project. The communication matrix below is used to outline details that concern the communication activities implemented during the Starbucks app project. The project matrix shows a communication plan strategy for the project manager, the project team, and other stakeholders of the project. The project manager will be responsible for the ultimate success of the project. In this regard, he/she oversee the all the activities of the project. However, the program manager will be tasked with the responsibility of ensuring that the communication plan is well monitored, controlled and well executed. He/she has to ensure that the communication plan extensively explains the effective communication channels and activities during the project. He reports any setbacks and progress of the communication channel. The program manager will report to the project manager (Binder, 2007). Program manager: the program manager oversee the activities of Starbucks app at the portfolio level. In this regard, the project manager is responsible for overall program costs and profitability of Starbucks app project (Binder,

Construction of Identity Through Photography

Construction of Identity Through Photography This essay the researcher will attempt to document the use of fashion photography namely two sets of fashion photographers with very different styles, Guy bourdain, Helmut Newton who worked predominantly in the 70s and 80s and Richard Avedon and Irving Penn who worked predominately in the 50s and 60s. the essay attempt to show if fashion photography contributes to promoting a positive influence in constructing identity of the female viewer. To do this the essay will define the use of semiotics fashion photography, he will show techniques and models that are used to create and sell an idea to the viewer. And determine whether the majority of the ridership of editorial fashion photography are influenced positively or negatively. The average readership for Britains most popular and renowned fashion publication is Vogue Britain is 646 thousand people, the parentage age of the ridership is as followed from 17 to 19 =15 % 20 to 24 25 % 25 to 34 26 % 35 to 44 17% and 44% to above 17%, 84 % of these readers are female, there for 81 % or 523,260 readers of the publication are females between the age of 17 and 34 (Vivacom, July, 2009 [online]). The process of developing identity begins with the infants discovery of self, and becomes the focus of adolescence. Erik Erikson, identified the goal of adolescence as achieving a coherent identity and avoiding identity confusion. Identity is multidimensional and may include physical and sexual identity, and usually make commitments to their identity as they move into early adulthood. Adults may revaluate and alter certain aspects of their identity as life circumstances Change.(http://social.jrank.org/ 2006 [online]). The physical, cognitive, and social changes of adolescence allows teenagers to develop there identity that will serve as a basis for their adult lives. The emergence of abstract reasoning abilities allows adolescents to think about the future and experiment with different identities. James Marcia hypothesized that identity development involves two steps. Step one, the adolescent must break away from childhood beliefs to explore alternatives for identity in a particular area i.e. clothing. (http://social.jrank.org/ 2006 [online]). The Second step, marcoa states that the adolescent makes a commitment as to their individual identity in that area. Often adolescents begin to question their ideas and beliefs and enter a moratorium. The moratorium status is characterized by exploration of alternatives. Identity may occur at different times. For females, an important component of their identity is related to their physical appearance. Identity achievement during adolescence serves as a basis for our adult expectations and goals for ourselves. As individuals enter early adulthood they use their understanding of whom they are to develop a life span construct a link between the identity developed in adolescence and the adult self. (http://social.jrank.org [2006]). As the st atement above suggests people predominantly woman are at there most influenced at there adolescence and young adults stages. As stated a large percentage of readers of magazines such as vogue fall with in this age group of adolescent to young adult. The two main types of fashion photography in fashion magazines such as Vogue are advertising and editorial, both of these photography forms use the use of signs or semiotics, in communicating the fashion to the reader mainly a woman between the age of 17 and 34. Fashion photography speaks both the reality and illusion of garments and of bodies, and in deconstructing how these elements are organized and presented, a new language and system emerges from the photographic work (Roland bath) A sign as anything which is so determined by something else, called its Object, and so determines an effect upon a person, a sign is constructed of three inter-related parts: a sign, an object, and an interpretation, in fashion photography the sign is the photograph, this doesnt necessarily mean the focus of the image i.e. the clothing it could be the entire scene and the narrative behind it. The object might be the clothing or the jewellery but it may also be the model and the interpretation. A reading of both the previous factors, take for example the photograph below by renowned fashion photography Corrine day. Plate 1 Corrine Day, 2007 Stem Golden Years, Vogue UK This is an example of an editorial fashion photograph. If this image were to be red as a sign first of all the image must be broken down first of all the sign the two dimensional object of a three dimensional seen, in the image the reader can see facts, the location is the London tube system it is between the hours of 7 am and 12 pm as we can see the train in the background and the train only runs between this time we can tell even with out knowing about the photographer we can tell that the image was taken between the 20th century and present day as this is when the tube was made. We can also see that the image included strobe flash as the models movement has been frozen yet the trains movement is blurred this also suggests that the image was taken between this time as the electronic flash was also created in this time. All these facts start to tell as story a narrative and sets up the stage for The object being the clothes and the model. Models play a key part in selling the item as well as the ideal, and research shown in; The influence of fashion magazines on the body image satisfaction of college women: an exploratory analysis by Sherry L. Turner,  Heather Hamilton,  Meija Jacobs,  Laurie M. Angood,  Deanne Hovde Dwyer has sets out to find if women are influenced negatively by fashion magazines. The research shows work by Sheldon and Stevens done in the 1940s; the research found that ectomorphic (having a build with little fat or muscle but with long limbs) individuals were perceived negatively. By the late 1980s, the perception had shifted. Ectomorphics were considered to be the most sexually appealing. The research states that in 1978, mean weight of models has dropped to 84% of the population mean, and among the Miss America Pageant contestants: Prior to 1970, mean weight of the contestants was approximately 88% of the population norm The research shows that these figures are consistent with the courage ousness of models appearing in Vogue from 1901 to 1981. A study done in this research proves that adolescent to young women are influenced by fashion magazines, the experiment took 49 undergraduate females enrolled in a psychology course at a New England womens college. 24 were assigned to the fashion magazine group, and 25 were assigned to the news magazine group. tests revealed no significant differences in the mean height, weight, or age of the two groups .Eight magazines were chose on the basis of its popularity and availability Four that had reputations of fashion and models Vogue, Bazaar, Elle, and Allure. And four news magazines used in the control Time, News week, News World Report, and Business Week. The participants were then assessed on perceptions of their bodies and their dieting attitudes. Examples of these questions are: I am very frustrated about my weight; I am afraid of getting fat; and I diet to improve my looks. Participants were then asked to indicate which of the eight magazines they read prior to completing the questionnaire. A three-part, self-administered questionnaire was used to assess womens body image satisfaction. The first portion of the questionnaire consisted of adult figure drawings designed and illustrated by Stunkard, Sorenson, and Schulsinger (1980). Each participant was asked to examine nine female silhouettes of varying size and to indicate the figure that most clearly reflected her perceptions of her own body type, her ideal body type, and the body type considered to be most ideal by society. A nine-point scale was used, with the lowest numbers corresponding to the thinnest silhouettes. The applicants were then asked to wait in a waiting room one at a time four magazines were placed in front of them. For half of the participants, the waiting room contained news magazines and for the half, there were fashion magazines. After 13 minutes, participants were given the questionnaire to complete. Unlimited time was given for completion. Ten participants indicated on their questionnaire that they did not read a magazine while waiting. These students were eliminated from the data analyses. The resulting sample consisted of 18 (37%) participants in the fashion magazine condition and 21 (43%) in the news magazine condition. The research results prove what they hypothesised. Ideal weight differed for the two groups. Women who viewed fashion magazines perceived a lower ideal weight than did women who viewed news magazines. Women who viewed fashion magazines reported more frequently feeling very frustrated about their weight, weighing themselves more than once a week, exercising only to lose weight feeling guilty while eating, feeling guilty after eating, being preoccupied with the desire to be thinner and being afraid of getting fat, Similarly, when compared to women who viewed news magazines, those who viewed fashion magazines less frequently reported being pleased about their bodies, and feeling satisfied with the shape of their bodies. This research has proven that the media has is influential to adolescent and young women it shows that the fashion magazine show and ideal rather than a reflection of societies perception of the female form. These results shows that the models in the photographs have a philological effect on the women that view and therefore read them, this leads to the interpretation the interpretation is a reading of both the previous factors the sign and the object, if the target audience i.e. woman 17 to 30 years of age Weston hemisphere middle income, feels jealousy for the shape and figure of the woman they will associate the clothes she is wearing with the model her self i.e. (if I want to be like her I have to get those clothes) or in other fashion photographs like the one below by renowned British fashion photographer Norman Parkinson, the images often show a glamorous location i.e. beaches far away cities such as New York Paris etc this adds another layer to the sign if people associate the object with the sign or the model and clothing with the location there interpretation may be that if I want to be like that model and have that life style then I have to get the clothes. Plate 2 Norman Parkinson, 1980, Pilar Crespi As the research earlier stated by the late 1980s, the perception had shifted ectomorphics were now considered to be the most sexually appealing, the research shows that fashion magazines changed from using larger models to thinner ones during two prominent fashion photographer working in this time were Guy bourdin and Helmut Newton. Guy Bourdin, Gaby wood from the observer says trailblazing image-maker of the Seventies and eighties, doyen of photographic perversion, godfather of countless images we see in magazines and advertising today. Bourdin pioneered what might be called the new soft porn the acceptable face of sex to sell anything, an aesthetic too knowing, too caught up in unveiling the world of the fetish, to be actually pornographic. (The Observer, 2003) Gaby reiterates the point that this photographer although giving a lot of new ideas and style to the fashion photography industry, is somewhat responsible for the change of models in fashion photography and along with other photographers of the 80s set the theme of models getting thinner in fashion photography. Plate 3 Guy Bourdin (1983) The Guy Bourdin Estate, 2003 The image above is a prime example of guy bourdin image, typically containing naked or semi naked women and featuring shoes the main focus of the image is the body, bourdin heavily crops a large amount of his work focusing on the body rather than the persons (models) face. When looking at this photograph it is hard to concentrate on any thing but the vivid colours of the objet the fashion and the purposely lit models, the back ground has been lit but with a much lower ratio than the models again drawing the focus to the body. Helmut Newton was another renowned fashion photographer that worked in the 60s 70s and 1980s Newtons work like bourdins in controversial and provocative. More than often the images contained naked females, His works appeared in magazines including, most significantly, French Vogue. Plate 4 Helmut Newton (1998) Mugler Above is a prime example of Newtons work often shot in black and white in high contrast the female is presented square on and the clothing has a relation to sadomasochistic and the fetish. The model is corseted witch exemplifies the narrow thin shape of the model. SM is a fashion statement today because of him (Independent on Sunday,  May 2001). Although a lot is wrote about Helmuts work being sexist, exploitative and misogynist but Helmuts wife renowned photographer Alice springs whom edited and curate Helmuts books and exhibitions says that he gives women power. The chains, whips and handcuffs are jokes, These women are no victims (Independent on Sunday,  May, 2001) further more The Barbican curator Tomoko Sato, who collaborated on the exhibition with June, its Guest Curator, says they define the role of women as commanding partner rather than passive object(Independent on Sunday,  May, 2001) in contrast to the work of guy bourdin and Helmut Newton the researcher will now show and discus how the work of fashion photographers who worked primarily in the 1940s and 1950 features models and signs and themes much different to the ones of the 70s and 80s the photographer that will be discussed are Richard Avedon and Irvin Penn. Richard Avedon shot the Paris collections for almost 40 years, and was staff photographer for  Vogue  from 1966 until 1990, Known for bringing the fashion models of the day, including and Sunny Harnett, to life, Richard Avedon injected a previously unseen vibrancy into the medium of fashion photography.  (JO CRAVEN 22 April, 2008) Plate 5 Richard Avedon (1950s) Above is an image by Avedon taken in 1957 of model Carmen DellOrefice. The image following the style of the time features the model looking curvy and not stick thin confirming the results of the tests of the students. Avedon used models like this through his carrier. Irvin Penn was another photographer working in fashion photography industry during the 50s and 60s Penn was 26 when he began working for vogue, photographic covers for the fashion magazine  Vogue. He began photographing his own ideas for covers and soon established himself as a fashion photographer. His austere fashion images communicated elegance and luxury through compositional refinement and clarity of line rather than through the use of elaborate props and backdrops. (1994-2010 Encyclopaedia Britannica,) Andy Gruenberg wrights in the New York times one of the 20th centurys most prolific and influential photographers of fashion and the famous, whose signature blend of classical elegance and cool minimalism was recognizable to magazine readers and museum goers worldwide. Plate 6 Irving Penn. 1950, Vogue America Cover Above is an example of Penns fashion work, again notice the size and shape of the model this image taken in the 1950 for a American vogue cover. Reiterating the point made in the studies and again contrasting the work and change in model shape by the 1980s Conclusion It would apeer that there was a shift in the way that the media fashion photography in particular presenter and advertised an ideal towards it main demographic the research has shown the effects of this change with studys. It has also suggested ways in with this is achieved i.e. semiotics the researcher then applied these rules in semiotics to fashion photography works. Noted fashion photographers were then selected and shown and compared for their noted works in the decades witch they predominantly worked. Over all I believe that the essay proves and highlights the point that it set out to do but more research to reiterate the findings would have been preferred to give the argument more definition. Also more research in to other metered of philology towards the model and advertising could have strengthened the argument more so.