Indian Consumer Behavior

CONSUMER LIFESTYLES IN INDIA (NOVEMBER 2004) 1. INTRODUCTION This report analyses consumer lifestyles in India and forms part of a 52-country series that complements the Euro monitor Consumer Lifestyles Database. Each country profile is structured under the following sub-headings: †¢ Population †¢ Consumer segmentation †¢ Regional development †¢ Home ownership †¢ Household profiles †¢ Labour †¢ Income †¢ Consumer and family expenditure †¢ Health †¢ Education †¢ Eating habits †¢ Drinking habits †¢ Shopping †¢ Personal grooming †¢ Fashion †¢ Leisure †¢ Savings †¢ Media †¢ Communications Transport †¢ Tourism The information in this report was gathered from a wide range of sources, starting with the national statistical agencies. This information was cross-checked for consistency, probability and mathematical accuracy. Secondly, we sought to fill in the gaps in the official National statis tical offices by using private sector surveys and official pan-regional and global sources. Furthermore, Euromonitor has carried out an extensive amount of modelling in order to come up with interesting data sets to complement the national standards available. The wide range of sources used in the compilation of this report means that there are occasionally discrepancies in the data which we were not able to reconcile in every instance. Even when the data is produced by the same national statistical office on a specific parameter, like the total population in a particular year, discrepancies can occur depending on whether it was derived from a survey, a national census or a projection and whether the data are mid-year or January. For slow trends, data are presented for 1990, 1995 and 2000-2003. Where it is interesting to look at projections, the data encompasses 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. Fast-moving trends such as communications are illustrated with data sets relating to 1990, 1995, 2000-2005, 2010 and 2015. Consumer goods data cover the period 1998-2003. 2. POPULATION 2. 1 Population by Age 700 million Indians are under the age of 35, making India one of the youngest nations in the world. The population of youth is almost equally divided between men and women, and in terms of numbers is more than the population of Latin America and the Caribbean put together. The changing demographics can be attributed to a slowdown in birth rate during the 1990s as well as rising levels of diseases amongst the 30+ age group. The biggest attraction for international players is perhaps the sheer numbers that provide them turnovers that corporates dream of. The 5-9 year-age group was the largest in 2004 though growth rates have been dropping over the review period. By the end of the forecast period though, the 15-19 year-age group is expected to be the largest in a digression from the historical trend indicating that the country will age slowly. In absolute terms, 10-14 year olds, 15-19 year olds and 20-24 year olds grew by approximately 25% since 1990. The changing demographics has been due to the high levels of birth rate in the last decade resulting in a population that attained these age levels post 2000. The population above 70 years of age will more than have doubled over the 1990-2015 period. 97% growth is expected amongst the 80+ group over the 2000-2015 period. Migration to other countries, better healthcare and a slowdown in birth rate are expected to contribute to some of these trends. The median age of the population is rising, albeit extremely slowly. Death rates are dropping gradually with improved access to healthcare but it is also accompanied by rather high levels of birth rate. According to an Oxford University Press publication by Tim Dyson, Robert Cassen and Leela Visaria by 2015, shifts are expected. The median age would rise to 31 from the current 24, and the proportion of 60+ would rise from 7% to 11%. Table 1 Population by Age: 1990-2015 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 114,799 119,235 120,974 117,342 116,462 116,324 5-9 yrs 102,289 110,845 115,921 118,296 115,260 114,758 10-14 yrs 89,781 100,560 109,302 114,583 117,137 114,226 15-19 yrs 85,268 88,870 99,696 08,541 113,937 116,575 20-24 yrs 77,264 84,180 87,878 98,790 107,722 113,188 25-29 yrs 68,307 76,098 83,001 86,771 97,607 106,430 30-34 yrs 59,422 67,262 74,926 81,753 85,361 95,802 35-39 yrs 49,661 58,435 66,152 73,656 80,244 83,504 40-44 yrs 41,157 48,632 57,281 64,854 72,146 78,395 45-49 yrs 35,384 39,977 47,346 55,842 63,253 70,294 50-54 yrs 31,1 25 33,892 38,442 45,667 53,980 61,191 55-59 yrs 26,547 29,144 31,917 36,391 43,422 51,469 60-64 yrs 21,023 23,942 26,496 29,242 33,590 40,300 65-69 yrs 15,507 17,879 20,598 23,047 25,711 29,807 70-74 yrs 10,547 12,112 14,196 16,614 18,870 21,331 75-79 yrs 6,274 7,213 8,471 10,146 12,127 4,023 80+ yrs 3,678 4,497 5,951 7,536 9,431 11,708 TOTAL 838,033 922,775 1,008,549 1,089,072 1,166,258 1,239,325 Median age of 21. 68 22. 45 23. 28 24. 31 25. 62 27. 05 population (Years) Death rates (per ‘000 10. 63 9. 49 8. 67 8. 07 7. 66 7. 49 inhabitants) Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 2 Population by Age (% Analysis): 1990-2015 % of total population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 13. 70 12. 92 11. 99 10. 77 9. 99 9. 39 5-9 yrs 12. 21 12. 01 11. 49 10. 86 9. 88 9. 26 10-14 yrs 10. 71 10. 90 10. 84 10. 52 10. 04 9. 22 15-19 yrs 10. 17 9. 63 9. 89 9. 97 9. 77 9. 41 20-24 yrs 9. 22 9. 12 8. 71 9. 07 9. 4 9. 13 25-29 yrs 8. 15 8. 25 8. 23 7. 97 8. 37 8. 59 30-34 yrs 7. 09 7. 29 7. 43 7. 51 7. 32 7. 73 35-39 yrs 5. 93 6. 33 6. 56 6. 76 6. 88 6. 74 40-44 yrs 4. 91 5. 27 5. 68 5. 95 6. 19 6. 33 45-49 yrs 4. 22 4. 33 4. 69 5. 13 5. 42 5. 67 50-54 yrs 3. 71 3. 67 3. 81 4. 19 4. 63 4. 94 55-59 yrs 3. 17 3. 16 3. 16 3. 34 3. 72 4. 15 60-64 yrs 2. 51 2. 59 2. 63 2. 69 2. 88 3. 25 65-69 yrs 1. 85 1. 94 2. 04 2. 12 2. 20 2. 41 70-74 yrs 1. 26 1. 31 1. 41 1. 53 1. 62 1. 72 75-79 yrs 0. 75 0. 78 0. 84 0. 93 1. 04 1. 13 80+ yrs 0. 44 0. 49 0. 59 0. 69 0. 81 0. 94 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 3 Population by Age (Growth): 1990/2015, 2000/2015 % growth 1990/2015 2000/2015 0-4 yrs 1. 33 -3. 84 5-9 yrs 12. 19 -1. 00 10-14 yrs 27. 23 4. 51 15-19 yrs 36. 72 16. 93 20-24 yrs 46. 50 28. 80 25-29 yrs 55. 81 28. 23 30-34 yrs 61. 22 27. 86 35-39 yrs 68. 15 26. 23 40-44 yrs 90. 48 36. 86 45-49 yrs 98. 66 48. 47 50-54 yrs 96. 60 59. 18 55-59 yrs 93. 88 61. 26 60-64 yrs 91. 69 52. 10 65-69 yrs 92. 21 44. 71 70-74 yrs 102. 24 50. 26 75-79 yrs 123. 51 65. 54 80+ yrs 218. 34 96. 76 TOTAL 47. 89 22. 88 Median age of population 24. 76 16. 19 Death rates -29. 52 -13. 55 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. Male Population by Age Males constitute 52% of the population. Half are under the age of 29 and are looking for earning opportunities. Though liberalisation and the recent NDA (National Democratic Alliance) government headed by ex-prime minister Shri Vajpayee did much to invest in infrastructure and create jobs, much of this has apparently not perco lated down to the lowest income classes if election results in mid-2004 (when the incumbent government was unceremoniously and unexpectedly voted out) are anything to go by. Not surprisingly, the 5-9 year-age group is again the largest segment, representing almost 11% of the total population. In relative terms, this segment has been stagnant since 1990 and has declined marginally since 2000. Due to a larger base, 15-19 year olds will constitute the largest segment by 2015 despite higher growth by other groups. In keeping with general demographic trends, the population below the age of 20 years grew the maximum over the review period. Dropping mortality rates and better healthcare has increased this population group. The median age of the male population in India is approximately the same as the overall median age of the population. It was 22 in 2000 and stands at a little more than 24 years in 2003. Much of India is a male dominated society, and even in urban areas, women are shouldering more and more household running responsibilities. On a lighter note, urban men are more conscious of their looks be it clothing or even actual physical features. One would find many highlighting their hair or even exploring a manicure or a facial massage in big metro cities such as Mumbai or Delhi. The latest corporate entrant to the beauty services business under the name of Kaya Skin Clinics caters to both men and women with clinics even in Dubai. This is a Marico India Limited promoted venture. There is an entire new category of urban men – â€Å"the meterosexual male† that is as demanding about clothes, footwear, music and even grooming aids or beauty treatments as women. In burgeoning malls, men are spending as much or even more as women due to greater financial independence in relative terms and the freedom to spend money on items of desire or personal use. The youth desire items such as cell phones, PDAs and other electronic gizmos. Footwear is another item high in purchase priority. Whether it is body piercing or permanent tattoos, it is all about making a statement. Fitness and sports-related equipment also catches their fancy. The coming decade from 2004 to 2013 will see growth in the 30-55 age bracket by 2%. This will translate into significantly increased demand for items such as travel and leisure, home and household items, lifestyle accessories and even alcoholic drinks. Table 4 Male Population by Age: 1990-2015 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 59,160 61,431 62,314 60,391 59,897 59,773 5-9 yrs 53,002 57,354 59,926 61,095 59,437 59,106 10-14 yrs 46,682 52,240 56,672 59,329 60,571 58,960 15-19 yrs 44,611 46,274 51,849 56,325 59,034 60,314 20-24 yrs 40,457 44,130 45,829 51,433 55,942 58,675 25-29 yrs 35,848 39,901 43,545 45,268 50,814 55,247 0-34 yrs 31,216 35,289 39,246 42,842 44,475 49,798 35-39 yrs 25,991 30,655 34,636 38,494 41,955 43,397 40-44 yrs 21,137 25,386 29,959 33,846 37,579 40,840 45-49 yrs 17,895 20,428 24,595 29,063 32,849 36,427 50-54 yrs 15,631 17,003 19,497 23,552 27,898 31,550 55-59 yrs 13,346 14,462 15,831 18,258 22,165 26,325 60-64 yrs 10,533 11,826 12,925 14,266 16,58 8 20,254 65-69 yrs 7,660 8,753 9,948 10,992 12,271 14,405 70-74 yrs 5,127 5,833 6,779 7,820 8,771 9,917 75-79 yrs 3,008 3,398 3,956 4,692 5,527 6,303 80+ yrs 1,756 2,094 2,684 3,338 4,129 5,050 TOTAL 433,062 476,458 520,192 561,005 599,902 636,341 Males as % of total 51. 68 51. 63 51. 8 51. 51 51. 44 51. 35 population Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 5 Male Population by Age (% Analysis): 1990-2015 % of male population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 13. 66 12. 89 11. 98 10. 76 9. 98 9. 39 5-9 yrs 12. 24 12. 04 11. 52 10. 89 9. 91 9. 29 10-14 yrs 10. 78 10. 96 10. 89 10. 58 10. 10 9. 27 15-19 yrs 10. 30 9. 71 9. 97 10. 04 9. 84 9. 48 20-24 yrs 9. 34 9. 26 8. 81 9. 17 9. 33 9. 22 25-29 yrs 8. 28 8. 37 8. 37 8. 07 8. 47 8. 68 30-34 yrs 7. 21 7. 41 7. 54 7. 64 7. 41 7. 83 35-39 yrs 6. 00 6. 43 6. 66 6. 86 6. 99 6. 82 40-44 yrs 4. 88 5. 33 5. 76 6. 03 6. 26 6. 42 45-49 yrs 4. 13 4. 29 4. 73 5. 8 5. 48 5. 72 50-54 yrs 3. 61 3. 57 3. 75 4. 20 4. 65 4. 96 55-59 yrs 3. 08 3. 04 3. 04 3. 25 3. 69 4. 14 60-64 yrs 2. 43 2. 48 2. 48 2. 54 2. 77 3. 18 65-69 yrs 1. 77 1. 84 1. 91 1. 96 2. 05 2. 26 70-74 yrs 1. 18 1. 22 1. 30 1. 39 1. 46 1. 56 75-79 yrs 0. 69 0. 71 0. 76 0. 84 0. 92 0. 99 80+ yrs 0. 41 0. 44 0. 52 0. 60 0. 69 0. 79 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 6 Male Population by Age (Growth): 1990/2015, 2000/2015 % growth 1990/2015 2000/2015 0-4 yrs 1. 04 -4. 08 5-9 yrs 11. 52 -1. 37 10-14 yrs 26. 30 4. 04 15-19 yrs 35. 20 16. 33 20-24 yrs 45. 03 28. 03 5-29 yrs 54. 12 26. 87 30-34 yrs 59. 53 26. 89 35-39 yrs 66. 97 25. 29 40-44 yrs 93. 22 36. 32 45-49 yrs 103. 56 48. 11 50-54 yrs 101. 84 61. 82 55-59 yrs 97. 25 66. 28 60-64 yrs 92. 29 56. 70 65-69 yrs 88. 04 44. 81 70-74 yrs 93. 41 46. 28 75-79 yrs 109. 53 59. 33 80+ yrs 187. 55 88. 16 TOTAL 46. 94 22. 33 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. 3 Female Population by Age 58% of the Indian female population is bel ow the age of 29. Of this 45% are over the age of 15 years. Female population proportion is likely to go up in the next decade following stringent official norms for sex determination and abortion of the female foetus. The current sex ratio stands at 933 females per 1,000 males as per the last census. Considering the decline in sex ratio from the previous census in 1991, female infanticide is still rampant not only in certain backward rural areas but also in a new form using modern technology in urban areas. Women in urban India have come a long way since the expectations their mothers or probably grandmothers had to live up to. In the 1960s and 1970s, it was a rarity to see working women. It went without saying that female members of the household handled household running responsibilities. Few would be seen dressed in anything but a sari, the national dress. Smoking and drinking were strict no-nos. Even going to the beauty parlour was considered highly emancipated! Cooking was always at home and done by women. Sacrificing personal wants and compromise were desirable attributes. The scenario dramatically changed in the 1990s with India’s entry onto the world beauty scene. Suddenly, every woman wanted to look good or do something that made a difference to her or to someone else. The salwar-kameez is almost a universal dress code. Originally, a North Indian attire, it caught the imagination of women from every region for its convenience and comfort. Young women are much surer of what they want and how to get it. Domestic duties such as cooking are minimised or taken care of in other ways. They would much rather work or do something that they would much rather be doing. Western-style dressing consisting of pants and a shirt is much more common even in workplaces. Social drinking is largely acceptable though still not desirable. On the other hand smoking is still a no-no notwithstanding the rise in number of working women who smoke in public. More and more women today have access to some means of income be it small or large amounts and even take investment decisions or play a significant role in the decision making. Today, one can see a mix of all kinds of women ranging from the traditional conservative to the ultra modern sophisticate. Even the traditional conservative is surprisingly quite progressive in emotional matters pertaining to education or even careers. While women are now increasingly comfortable with their bodies and do not mind even flaunting it, they still would prefer striking a balance between home and work. With more and more women earning their own money, they are now almost equally positioned as bread earners in families. Most men find it difficult to deal with this situation since money and the way it must be spent (larger sums that probably go beyond household expenses) is still considered a male domain. But there is an increasing segment that is now taking investment decisions as well. The stock market boom in 2003 attracted large numbers of housewives who got into the act of trading shares, earning just that little bit extra irrespective of their socioeconomic status or educational background. The attitude towards motherhood is changing. It is now more a matter of choice than chance. Young urban educated women are taking parenting much more seriously. Previously, the first child was born at an average age of 25, today in some parts it is 32 years. Women-on-vacation is another phenomenon slowly becoming visible at railway platforms, airport lounges and even gravelled roads. Single, married, divorced or bereaved and aged anywhere from 16-70 years, women are on the move. As the population ages and more working women constitute the Indian population, there will be a demand for items of personal use and anti-ageing products and services. The number of women smoking or drinking is also on the rise. Earlier considered taboo, rising pressures professionally and personally have only contributed to this changing paradigm. Table 7 Female Population by Age: 1990-2015 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 55,639 57,805 58,660 56,951 56,565 56,552 5-9 yrs 49,287 53,491 55,994 57,201 55,823 55,652 10-14 yrs 43,098 48,320 52,630 55,254 56,565 55,266 15-19 yrs 40,657 42,596 47,848 52,217 54,903 56,261 20-24 yrs 36,806 40,050 42,049 47,357 51,781 54,513 25-29 yrs 32,460 36,197 39,456 41,504 46,793 51,183 30-34 yrs 28,206 31,972 35,680 38,912 0,886 46,004 35-39 yrs 23,671 27,780 31,516 35,163 38,289 40,106 40-44 yrs 20,020 23,247 27,322 31,008 34,567 37,555 45-49 yrs 17,489 19,549 22,752 26,779 30,404 33,867 50-54 yrs 15,493 16,890 18,945 22,115 26,082 29,640 55-59 yrs 13,200 14,683 16,086 18,133 21,257 25,144 60-64 yrs 10,490 12,116 13,571 14,976 17,001 20,046 65-69 yrs 7,847 9,126 10,651 12,054 13,439 15,402 70-74 yrs 5,420 6,278 7,417 8,794 10,099 11,414 75-79 yrs 3,266 3,815 4,515 5,453 6,600 7,720 80+ yrs 1,922 2,403 3,267 4,198 5,302 6,658 TOTAL 404,970 446,317 488,357 528,067 566,356 602,984 Females as % of total 48. 32 48. 37 48. 42 8. 49 48. 56 48. 65 population Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 8 Female Population by Age (% Analysis): 1990-2015 % of female population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 0-4 yrs 13. 74 12. 95 12. 01 10. 78 9. 99 9. 38 5-9 yrs 12. 17 11. 99 11. 47 10. 83 9. 86 9. 23 10-14 yrs 10. 64 10. 83 10. 78 10. 46 9. 99 9. 17 15-19 yrs 10. 04 9. 54 9. 80 9. 89 9. 69 9. 33 20-24 yrs 9. 09 8. 97 8. 61 8. 97 9. 14 9. 04 25-29 yrs 8. 02 8. 11 8. 08 7. 86 8. 26 8. 49 30-34 yrs 6. 96 7. 16 7. 31 7. 37 7. 22 7. 63 35-39 yrs 5. 85 6. 22 6. 45 6. 66 6. 76 6. 65 40-44 yrs 4. 94 5. 21 5. 59 5. 87 6. 10 6. 23 5-49 yrs 4. 32 4. 38 4. 66 5. 07 5. 37 5. 62 50-54 yrs 3. 83 3. 78 3. 88 4. 19 4. 61 4. 92 55-59 yrs 3. 26 3. 29 3. 29 3. 43 3. 75 4. 17 60-64 yrs 2. 59 2. 71 2. 78 2. 84 3. 00 3. 32 65-69 yrs 1. 94 2. 04 2. 18 2. 28 2. 37 2. 55 70-74 yrs 1. 34 1. 41 1. 52 1. 67 1. 78 1. 89 75-79 yrs 0. 81 0. 85 0. 92 1. 03 1. 17 1. 28 80+ yrs 0. 47 0. 54 0. 67 0. 80 0. 94 1. 10 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 9 Female Population by Age (Growth): 1990/2015, 2000/2015 % growth 1990/2015 2000/2015 0-4 yrs 1. 64 -3. 59 5-9 yrs 12. 91 -0. 61 10-14 yrs 8. 23 5. 01 15-19 yrs 38. 38 17. 58 20-24 yrs 48. 11 29. 64 25-29 yrs 57. 68 29. 72 30-34 yrs 63. 10 28. 94 35-39 yrs 69. 43 27. 26 40-44 yrs 87. 59 37. 45 45-49 yrs 93. 65 48. 86 50-54 yrs 91. 31 56. 45 55-59 yrs 90. 48 56. 32 60-64 yrs 91. 10 47. 72 65-69 yrs 96. 28 44. 61 70-74 yrs 110. 60 53. 89 75-79 yrs 136. 38 70. 98 80+ yrs 246. 49 103. 82 TOTAL 48. 90 23. 47 Source: UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. 4 Fertility and Birth Fertility rates in India fell to 2. 9 in 2003. The decline can be attributed to the rise in mean age at ma rriage and the postponement of the child-bearing decision. The average age of Indian women at child birth rose to 28 years in 2003. In some urban areas and metro cities it could well be early 30s. As women seek higher educational and professional achievements, urban families are postponing having children. In many cases, one of the reasons cited is that they would like to know their spouses better before giving rise to a social responsibility. Amongst celebrities such as personalities from the film industry as well as fashion, adoption is being increasingly accepted. These are usually highly successful, financially independent women who cannot or do not find the need for a spouse to raise children. Men still take a back seat where adoption is concerned. A complete change in the way earning opportunities present themselves in an increasingly open economy and the transient nature of jobs, values and money have made Indians seek personal confidence and stability before committing themselves further. Birth control has received total government support irrespective of the political party in power. However, a large number of women may not be able to afford birth control even if they wish to do so. Large numbers of couples want to space or limit births but they are not using any method of contraception. According to official sources, a nationwide survey it undertook showed that approximately 16% of couples or about 30 million couples have an unmet need for contraception. High fertility is one important factor affecting the reproductive health of women. One out of every 75 women of reproductive age dies from child birth-related causes. Other reproductive health indicators also reflect a generally poor health status. Only 15% of mothers receive complete antenatal care, and only 58% receive any iron/folate tablets or syrup. Only 34% of deliveries take place in facilities, and, at best, 42% are assisted by a health professional. Though there are official government norms for promoting two children families, there are many holding public positions that have three or four or even more children. It is therefore difficult for lawmakers who themselves go against government policies to implement them with complete resolution. There is a wide disparity in the population growth rates amongst various states. Southern states have achieved a greater measure of success in almost stabilising their birth rate growth due to a higher level of education and literacy in general. On the other hand, Northern states such as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar represent a dismal picture. There is an unmet need for family planning in these states and about 25% of it is in Uttar Pradesh (UP) state. Is it a boy or a girl? The legacy of a declining sex ratio in the history of the Census of India took a new turn with the widespread use of new reproductive technologies (NRTs) in urban areas. NRTs are based on the principles of selection of the desirable and rejection of the unwanted. In India, the desirable is the baby boy and the unwanted is the baby girl. The result is obvious; the Census of 2001 revealed that with a sex ratio of 933 women for every 1,000 men, India had a deficit of 3. million women when it entered the new millennium. To stop the abuse of advanced scientific techniques for selective elimination of female foetuses through sex -determination, the government of India passed the Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (PNDT) Act in 1994. But techno-docs based in the metropolises and other urban centres, and parents desirous of begetting only sons, have subverted it. Outreach to the most vulnerable elements of the population is very limited, and the quality of services, in general, is poor. Additional constraints exist in the delivery of services. For family planning, the choice of methods is often limited and sterilisation remains the method of choice. Other approaches, including delaying the age of marriage and first pregnancies, and encouraging longer birth intervals, present major social and policy challenges. Religious and medical barriers exist in some areas, as do cultural issues associated with the preference for boys and denial of opportunities for girls and women. However, both the private and the public sector are taking substantial initiatives in the area of healthcare and there have been some improvements. Fertility rates fell by 23% over the 1990-2003 period though there was a slight increase in 2002. Some studies have shown that the increase was due to natural calamities in 2001 and 2002 accompanied by civil disturbances when citizens were mostly confined to their homes and had limited entertainment options. The fertility rate fell the following year by nearly 4% in 2003 over 2002 in keeping with the trend over the last decade. Table 10 Fertility and Birth: 1990/1995, 2000-2003 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Average age of women at 20. 40 24. 20 26. 70 27. 20 27. 80 28. 33 hildbirth (years) Birth rates (per ‘000 30. 07 27. 45 24. 90 24. 37 23. 78 23. 40 inhabitants) Fertility rates 3. 80 3. 48 3. 06 2. 99 3. 02 2. 91 (children born per female) Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, CIA World Factbook, Euromonitor Table 11 Fertility and Birth (Growth): 1990/2003, 2002/2003 % growth 1990/2003 2002/2003 Average age of women at childbirth 38. 87 1. 91 Birth rat es -22. 18 -1. 60 Fertility rates -23. 42 -3. 64 Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, CIA World Factbook, Euromonitor 2. 5 Population by Marital Status There are only two dominant types of population by marital status in India – married or single. Married Married couples form more than half the population in India. Marriage is a sacred institution accompanied and governed by numerous social and religious customs and sanctions. Elders in the family normally arrange marriages in most of India and even with changing social fabric, parental acceptance and blessings are important. The result is a blend of the old and the new where brides/bridegrooms-to-be actually meet or see each other before the marriage and are allowed to exercise their choices. Marriage and child rearing is an accepted way of life and youngsters between the ages of 18 and 30 do look forward to settling down and getting married. An unmarried individual would stand out in the predominantly middle-class Indian society. However, acceptance of this is also increasing. There are a number of young adults, usually successful in their own lives, who choose not to get married or are unable to get married. Cracks and strains have started showing in a number of marriages due to postponement of the marriage decision, new income earning opportunities, changing lifestyles, new technologies and a sea change in attitudes and spirations in urban India. Hence, married families in 2003 grew at a slower rate than divorced or single families at only 1. 4%. Divorce Divorce is a little uncommon but is growing in incidence with young couples not willing to compromise or spend time on making a relationship successful. Interestingly, it is couples who knew each other before marriage that are seeing a rise in divorce rather than â€Å"arranged† family affairs that are part of Indian convention. There are instances of certain communities that are using technology (SMSs – Short Messaging System) to divorce their spouses by sending the message â€Å"divorce† thrice! The number of divorce cases filed in some cities reaches as high as 17,000 cases in Kolkata city with Pune having the least at 2,000. Some 9,000 cases are filed each year in Mumbai city alone. Widowers Widowers form a small 5% of Indian society that predominantly consists of youth. Rising longevity, increasing age at marriage and even social reform with respect to â€Å"child widows†, â€Å"child marriages† and â€Å"widow remarriage† have contained the growth of this category of the population. There are not too many widows/widowers in urban areas and even these generally stay with their families as in their sons or daughters. In certain rural areas, with lack of healthcare and awareness of a number of health conditions, widowers could form a slightly larger population segment. Co-habitation Co-habitation is still not viewed with much respect in a society steeped in tradition. In the Western state of Gujarat there is actually a quasi-legal arrangement called â€Å"Maitri Karar† that stipulates the responsibilities of a contract â€Å"friendship†. However, there are a growing number of homosexuals –both men and women, who have come out of the closet and are finding some acceptance. There are at least five lesbian groups in the country which are striving to provide dignity to this section of the populace. There is a large number who is probably not even aware of their preferences and go through much turmoil in the process. Yet, permissiveness is at an all-time high. 27% of the population in Bangalore; Chennai 28%; Delhi 22%t; Hyderabad 20%; Kolkata 32%; Mumbai 24% feel that both partners should be free to have extramarital sex with the spouse's consent. Delhiites are most likely to have done it at a younger age than their counterparts in other cities. Hyderabadis and Mumbaikars show the maximum inclination to infidelity. Adultery is going middle-class, to small-town India, going commonplace, even going boring. Dangerous liaisons used to be for the aristos and the plebs. Those in between, the middle classes, were tethered by moral chastity belts – only their fantasies could roam freely. Or it was all within the family, the extramarital dalliances, that is. The scarlet letter is now fading fast: stigma is getting passe and guilt for an increasing number is no more than a twitch. New technology is an important factor encouraging the phenomenon. Internet and mushrooming cyber cafes have helped, as have mobile phones and SMS facilities. Middle-class India is having a great time and most Westerners are shocked at the change. Table 12 Population by Marital Status: 1990/1995, 2000-2003 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Married 471,829 494,405 516,978 524,708 532,254 539,637 Divorced 3,093 5,010 8,059 8,214 8,365 8,510 Widowed 52,532 56,663 53,373 54,144 54,895 55,629 Single & other/unknown 310,578 366,696 430,138 438,100 445,958 453,729 TOTAL 838,033 922,775 1,008,549 1,025,166 1,041,471 1,057,505 Average age of women at 19. 00 22. 90 25. 50 25. 90 26. 50 26. 97 first marriage (years) Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 13 Population by Marital Status (% Analysis): 1990/1995, 2000-2003 % of total population 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Married 56. 30 53. 58 51. 26 51. 18 51. 11 51. 03 Divorced 0. 37 0. 54 0. 80 0. 80 0. 80 0. 80 Widowed 6. 27 6. 14 5. 29 5. 28 5. 27 5. 26 Single & other/unknown 37. 06 39. 74 42. 65 42. 73 42. 82 42. 91 TOTAL 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January Table 14 Population by Marital Status (Growth): 1990/2003, 2000/2003 growth 1990/2003 2000/2003 Married 14. 37 4. 38 Divorced 175. 1 5. 59 Widowed 5. 9 4. 23 Single & other/unknown 46. 09 5. 48 TOTAL 26. 19 4. 85 Average age of women at first marriage 41. 93 5. 75 Source: National statistical offices, Council of Europe, UN, Euromonitor Note: As at 1 January 2. 6 Population by Educational Attainment Indians place a lot of importance on higher education as is evident from the number of graduates as well as the number of Indians doing extremely well in other parts of the world. Despite huge odds, the literacy rate now stands at more than 65% for the country as a whole. In terms of numbers, most of the population has some form of primary education. Kerala is the only state that has 100% literacy. Public expenditure on education now stands at 4% of GDP, well below the Kothari Commission recommendation of 6% way back in 1968. The private sector is now taking increasing initiatives in primary level education after having participated in a mixed fashion in the form of self-financed colleges and institutions of higher learning. This is one of the factors for higher growth in the level of education attainment at higher levels as compared to primary education. There are about 888,000 educational institutions in the country with an enrolment of about 179 million. Elementary Education System in India is the second largest in the World with 149 million children of 6-14 years enrolled and almost three million teachers. This is about 82% of the children in the age group. Compulsory education has been enforced in four States and Union Territories (UTs) at the primary stage of education while in eight States/UTs there is compulsory education covering the entire elementary stage of education. As many as 20 States/UTs have not introduced any measure of compulsion. Though education is in the concurrent list (ie both the Central and State governments are responsible for this social sector) of the Constitution, the State Governments play a very major role in the development of education particularly in the primary and the secondary education sectors. In order to facilitate donations including smaller amounts from India and abroad for implementing projects/programmes connected with the education sector, the Government constituted the â€Å"Bharat Shiksha Kosh† as a Society registered under the Society Registration Act, 1860. The Kosh was officially launched on 9 January 2003 during the celebration of Pravasi Bharatiya Diwas. The Kosh will receive donations/contributions/endowments, from individuals and corporate, Central and State Governments, non-resident Indians and people of Indian origin for various activities across all sectors of education. Table 15 Population by Educational Attainment: 1990/1995, 2000-2003 ‘000 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 Primary & no education 372,583 378,124 391,590 400,014 408,770 417,596 Secondary 79,103 121,874 163,622 167,434 171,221 175,064 Higher 79,478 92,137 107,140 109,858 112,464 115,123 TOTAL 531,164 592,134 662,352

The Conservation Of Tropical Rainforests Environmental Sciences Essay

A practical grasp of some tropical rain forest preservation issues was gained through the scrutiny of the Mossman Gorge recreational site, the next Aboriginal community, and the Cow Bay part. These sites were examined utilizing the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ‘s ( OECD ) Pressure-State-Response describing theoretical account in which observations were recorded in proformas and visually captured utilizing picture taking. There are a figure of force per unit areas on tropical rain forest systems, which are both natural and human induced and impact the province of the environment. Responses to these force per unit areas can be in the signifier of long and short term steps, nevertheless, there are many factors which need to be considered before implementing such steps, for illustration force per unit areas that may ensue from the response action. Management and preservation of tropical rain forests is disputing, with legion stakeholders involved. However, to go on to protect these extremely diverse countries, they need to be managed efficaciously, monitored on a regular basis, and the response mechanisms re-evaluated often.Mossman GorgeRecreational Activity in Tropical Rainforest and Indigenous ConcernsIntroductionGeneral OverviewNature-based touristry is a quickly turning touristry section within the planetary touristry industry, and is of peculiar significance within Tropical North Queensland ( Hill & A ; Gale, 2009 ) . The bulk of this touristry occurs within fragile, sensitive and protected environments, which raises concerns about the impacts that touristry has on these environments ( Hill & A ; Gale, 2009 ) . Negative impacts from these activities occur and need to be addressed ( Kimmel, 1999 ) . There is a demand to be after and modulate recreational activities within rain forests to forestall such possible negative impacts ( Kimmel, 1999 ) . The direct and indirect negative impacts of diversion and touristry can include: gla de of flora for substructure, harm from treading, the spread of alien weeds along walking paths and roads, the spread of diseases, such as Phytopthora cinnamomi and many other impacts ( Pickering & A ; Hill, 2007 ) . However, recreational activities associated with touristry can besides let people to larn and be educated about environmental rules which can rise their consciousness of and committedness to environmental protection ( Kimmel, 1999 ) . There are a figure of Autochthonal cultural and direction concerns related to recreational activity in tropical rain forests. Autochthonal people are traditional keepers of the land, and therefore have a right to be included in the direction of recreational sites within their country ( Hill, Baird, & A ; Buchanan, 1999 ) . Their countries are of great cultural and heritage significance and merit regard that is non normally introduced or present with development and touristry ( Bentrupperbaumer, & A ; Reser, 2000 ) . Autochthonal communities located near tourer sites can endure from a deficiency of privateness and regard, cultural commodification, trespass, supplanting and a whole host of other issues ( Bentrupperbaumer, & A ; Reser, 2000 ) . Concerns besides encompass: negative environmental impacts as a consequence of touristry and tourers on the land, devastation or change of narrative topographic points and sacred sites, and issues sing stealing/touching and defacing of nature and artifacts ( Hill, Baird, & A ; Buchanan, 1999 ) .Site Location and DescriptionThe Mossman Gorge recreational site and next Aboriginal community were the site locations for this survey country. The Aboriginal Community of the Kuku Yalanji people, Bamanga Bubu Ngadimunku, is located next to the Mossman Gorge recreational site, West of Mossman ( Bentrupperbaumer, & A ; Reser, 2000 ) . Access to the recreational site is by agencies of a route through the Aboriginal community ( Bentrupperbaumer, & A ; Reser, 2000 ) . The community, which started in the 1960 ‘s when the Daintree Mission closed, has about 170 occupants. Tourism is utilized as a beginning of income for the community. The Mossman Gorge recreational site is located in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area ( WTWHA ) within the Daintree National Park ( Murphy, & A ; Harding, 2008 ) . It has been designed for twenty-four hours usage. There is a auto park and picnic country, along with a lavatory block and bike rack. Fires, bivouacing and fishing are prohibited activities. No rubbish bins or barbecues are provided. There are a sum of 25 designated parking infinites, with parking happening elsewhere every bit good, and 7 picnic tabular arraies are provided. Mossman River flows beside the site, and the site itself is surrounded by lowland tropical rain forest ( Murphy, & A ; Harding, 2008 ) . Figure 1 shows a map of this country. This country has about 500,000 visitants on an one-year footing ( Bentrupperbaumer, & A ; Reser, 2000 ) .Data PresentationMethodsThe OECD Pressure State Response theoretical account and its accompanying model are tools used to pass on information sing the province of the environme nt, force per unit areas moving upon it and response steps that can be taken ( Figure 2 ) ( OECD, 2000 ) . This theoretical account was used to develop proformas in which informations could so be collected consistently. Behavioral observations of wildlife and worlds were undertaken every bit good as systematic experimental recordings of the built and natural environments to measure the site ; these were recorded in the proformas. Cardinal indexs were developed and used for entering the province of the natural, built and human environments. Pressures that degraded the province of these environments were so identified and recorded in the proformas. Response steps already in topographic point were so identified and extra responses considered and recorded in the proformas. Additional cardinal note pickings was besides used to roll up informations, along with picture taking to enter site conditions. Data was collected at the Mossman Gorge recreational site and at the Indigenous Community on the 27th of April 2010. The conditions was overcast with rain. Mossman Gorge recreational site was visited from 9:30-10:00am and from 11:30-1:00pm. The Indigenous Community was visited from 10:00-11:30am.ConsequencesThe consequences are summarised in the undermentioned figures, exposures and tabular arraies.DiscussionState/ConditionIn general, the natural environment was in good status. Bing within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and Daintree National Park, the site has been handled by environmental direction bureaus. There was non a big diverseness of wildlife witnessed at the site. This absence of wildlife was most likely due to the conditions conditions and clip restraints of when the survey was conducted. The wildlife that did look was chiefly in the signifier of insects and bush Meleagris gallopavos. The bush Meleagris gallopavos were habituated to worlds, were aggressive towards eac h other when scavenging, and one had an injured leg. The flora seemed to hold been chiefly in the signifier of healthy primary low land rain forest. There was some invasion of alien weed species at the border of the route, borders of the recreational country, and within the garden. The yellowing of foliages on a little figure of trees indicated their possible unhealthy province. The dirt appeared to be slightly degraded in the chief country of the recreational site and peculiarly around the border boundaries. Erosion and compression of dirt were happening. The H2O seemed to be in good status, with first-class flow, and the H2O was clear, nevertheless there did look to be some signifier of algae/moss/fungi on the partially and to the full submerged stones. The air was non in peculiarly good status as there was odourand noise pollution nowadays. Areas within this site most at hazard to degradation include the border boundaries between the natural environment and the built, that is: on the border of the route, the country environing the picnic/grass country and environing the lavatory block. The built environment could be separated into three distinguishable ‘state ‘ countries. The route and auto park country were non in good status. The picnic tabular arraies, marks and waies were in reasonably good status. The staying reinforced environment was in satisfactory status, such as the coffin nail bins which needed cleansing and voidance, and the garden, which suffered from dirt and mulch loss, every bit good as some weeds, and wood rot/mould. By and large, the human environment was non in good status. Historical and traditional utilizations of the country were non looking to be undertaken, there was herding of people, big Numberss of vehicles and perceptible noise and odour pollution. The Traditional Owners besides felt displaced, a loss of sense and belonging, and uncomfortable in the recreational country.PressuresThere are legion direction and preservation force per unit areas at the Mossman Gorge diversion site. The chief environmental force per unit areas include pollution, human activities and glade and atomization. Pollution from vehicles and people caused the debasement of the natural environment and lowered visitant satisfaction. Human activities such as chasing and eating animate beings, compression of dirt and the touching or mutilation of flora topographic point force per unit area on the natural environment. Clearing can do loss of primary rain forest, secondary regrowth, affects dirt and cause atomization. At omization consequences in additive barriers and border effects, impacting flora and wildlife. Climate alteration is a long term force per unit area to the natural environment which may besides bring forth societal and cultural issues. The chief built force per unit areas include hapless design and layout of the country, non plenty of some installations, every bit good as inordinate usage of some installations. Poor design and layout of the country includes the lavatories isolated from the walking paths but near to Mossman River and the picnic tabular arraies really near to primary rain forest. This could do force per unit area through increased contact of visitants with the natural environment ( eroding, compression, chasing of wildlife and handling of flora ) , possible pollution from the lavatory block into the river, and decreased visitant satisfaction. There are deficient installations such as auto Parkss, marks, tabular arraies and seats, every bit good as lavatories which can do force per unit area on the substructure and lessening visitant satisfaction. Excessive usage of installations includes the route and auto Parkss which cause harm to the substructure and environment, peculiarly through eroding. The chief human force per unit areas include inordinate visitant Numberss, distribution and hapless usage forms and behaviors. Excessive visitant Numberss and clumped distribution of visitants, such as on walking paths, causes harm to the natural environment through compression of dirt, more human handling of flora, decrease in visitant satisfaction and an addition in the likeliness of substructure harm. Poor usage forms of visitants besides can do harm to the environment, substructure and a lessening in visitant satisfaction. Visitor behavior force per unit areas can do cultural issues sing discourtesy, opprobrious linguistic communication and racism towards the Autochthonal people. All of these force per unit areas affect the natural environment, the subs tructure, and produce societal and cultural issues.ResponsesShort Term Management Strategies Education through the installing of more effectual marks with pictural diagrams and warnings of forbidden activities in different linguistic communications could be utilized. Cusps in different linguistic communications or perchance even presenting a Ranger on site during peak visitant times/seasons may besides win in educating the visitants about negative impacts on the environment and may besides cut down discourtesy and bad behavior towards the Autochthonal people. Decreasing the force per unit areas from uncluttering and atomization could be accomplished through presenting buffer zones and wildlife corridors, well linking tree canopies across the route and walking paths and perchance even constructing elevated board walks. Engagement of Traditional Indigenous Owners in the direction of the recreational site and the instruction of visitants could cut down cultural and societal force per unit areas as the tourers may derive cultural penetration and regard for the Autochthonal peopl e. The execution of drainage may cut down dirt eroding which, in bend, may alleviate some force per unit area on flora. Redesigning the country by traveling the picnic tabular arraies off from the immediate rain forest and into the chief subdivision of the grassed country every bit good as switching the lavatory block back off from the river could besides be effectual responses to pollution and human impacts. More effectual enforcement of regulations and ordinances through better monitoring and increased mulcts in relation to, ‘no trailing or upseting wildlife ‘ , ‘no littering ‘ , ‘no manus feeding ‘ , and ‘no speeding/dangerous driving ‘ could besides significantly cut down force per unit areas from human activities. Long Term Management Strategies Possibly presenting a little entry fee and steadily increasing it over clip could cut down vehicle traffic and the figure of visitants, and may diminish force per unit areas on the natural, built and human environments. The Mossman Gorge Gateway Project is a response to force per unit areas on the natural, built and human environments. It will affect the Indigenous community which may cut down societal and cultural force per unit areas. The undertaking should besides efficaciously cut down vehicle traffic into the site, be able to curtail, or expeditiously clip the entry of visitants so as to cut down crowding, and do the local Autochthonal people more comfy when sing the site.DecisionRecreational activity at the Mossman Gorge site affects the province of the World Heritage tropical rain forest in the country. The debut of big Numberss of visitants and traffic, every bit good as edifice substructure to back up these visitants had placed force per unit areas on the natural environment . To conserve this sensitive country response steps are required to cut down force per unit areas non merely on the natural environ, but besides the built and human environments. The associated concerns of the Indigenous community, that is next to this recreational site, besides need to be addressed. The Autochthonal people are frequently faced with discourtesy and bad behavior from visitants which has displaced these Traditional Owners, lowered their ego regard, made them uncomfortable, and created a loss of sense of topographic point and belonging. Through response mechanisms, there may be a lessening in societal and cultural force per unit areas and the concerns of the Indigenous could be addressed by affecting them more in the direction of the site.MentionsBentrupperbaumer, JM, & A ; Reser, JP 2000, Impacts of Visitation and Use: Psychosocial and Biophysical Windows on Visitation and Use in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Rainforest Ecology and Management, Cairns. Hill, J. , & A ; Gale, T. ( explosive detection systems ) 2009, Ecotourism and Environmental Sustainability: Principles and Practices, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Surrey. Hill R, Baird, A, & A ; Buchanan, D 1999, Aborigines and Fire in the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia: Ecosystem Management Across Cultures, Society & A ; Natural Resources, 12, pp. 205 – 223. Kimmel, JR 1999, Ecotourism as Environmental Learning, The Journal of Environmental Education, 30, 2, pp. 40 – 44. Murphy, A, & A ; Harding, P 2008, Queensland & A ; the Great Barrier Reef, 5th edn, Alone Planet Publishing Pty Ltd, Victoria. OECD, 2000, OECD Proceedings Frameworks to Measure Sustainable Development: An OECD Expert Workshop, OECD, Paris. Pickering, CM, & A ; Hill, W 2007, Impacts of diversion and touristry on works biodiversity and flora in protected countries in Australia, The Journal of Environmental Management, 85, pp. 791 – 800.Cow Bay RegionUrban Development within Tropical Rain forestsIntroductionGeneral OverviewHuman activity in a tropical rain forest can take to woods devastation or debasement ( Maloney, 1998 ) . Urban development in this scene can hold a figure of negative drawbacks, peculiarly the clearance of land for development ( Maloney, 1998 ) . This development that occurs in these pristine and by and large delicate environments can interrupt the dirt system, do extended irreversible harm and ease more urban development ( Maloney, 1998 ) . Linear barriers and border effects can ensue from urban development and do the change or devastation of home grounds, alter wildlife and flora populations, cause perturbations of visible radiation, dust, fumes exhausts, enable the invasion of alien species, f ragment home grounds and populations and consequence in increased mortality of animate beings from vehicle traffic ( Laurance, & A ; Bierregaard, 1997 ; Rico, Kindlmann, & A ; Sedlacek, 2007 ) . Over the past 150 old ages at that place have been dramatic alterations to the rain forest in the Wet Tropics part ( Bermingham, Dick, Moritz, 2005 ) . The Daintree country is one of the most biologically diverse and important parts within the WHWTA ( Bermingham, Dick, Moritz, 2005 ) . Urban growing and substructure in this country have impacted the natural environment and will go on to make so, such as by break uping home grounds ( Bermingham, Dick, Moritz, 2005 ; Rico, Kindlmann, & A ; Sedlacek, 2007 ) . There is a struggle between development and preservation in this country ( Bermingham, Dick, Moritz, 2005 ) . Rain forests provide cardinal ecosystem services and therefore keep important value, therefore developing sustainable direction patterns in these countries is indispensable ( Bermi ngham, Dick, Moritz, 2005 ) .Site Location and DescriptionThe Cow Bay part is a combination of a complex mosaic of flora types, including low land tropical rain forest, and urban development ( Figure 5 & A ; 6 ) . The part is one of high biodiversity, located within the WTWHA ( Rainforest CRC, 2000 ) . Approximately, there are 287 belongingss in the country numbering 514 hectares ; 80 belongingss of which are settled, 12 of which have been given to conservation intent and the staying are unsettled ( Rainforest CRC, 2000 ) . Within the settled belongingss, development scopes from full glade of private lands to merely minimal uncluttering with rainforest residential homes ( Rainforest CRC, 2000 ) . The development of urban substructure has allowed entree to what would hold been a distant country.Data PresentationMethodsThe OECD Pressure State Response theoretical account was used to develop proformas in which informations could so be collected consistently ( OECD, 2000 ) . Systematic experimental recordings of the natural environ were used to measure the part and the information was recorded in the proformas. Cardinal indexs were developed and used to find force per unit areas that degraded the province of the natural environment due to urban development. Response steps already in topographic point were so identified and extra responses were considered and recorded in the proformas. Additional cardinal note pickings was besides used to roll up informations, along with picture taking to record force per unit areas or responses. Data was collected in the Cow Bay Region on the 27th of April 2010 from 3:00-4:30/5:00pm. The conditions was overcast with minimum rain.ConsequencesThe consequences are summarised in the undermentioned figures, exposures and tabular arraies.DiscussionPressuresThere are legion preservation issues associated with the urbanization of the Cow Bay Region within a lowland tropical rain forest scene. The chief environmental force per unit areas include pollution, human activities, glade, atomization, border effects and additive barriers. Pollution from vehicles and from people, in the signifier of rubbish and sewerage, can do the debasement of the natural environment. Human activities, such as glade and developing private belongings, presenting alien fruit, weed species and domestic animate beings, changing the flow and quality of H2O, touristry, utilizing generators and farming topographic point force per unit area on the natural environment. Clearing can do loss of primary rain forest, se condary regrowth, dirt debasement, H2O quality issues and can do atomization. Atomization consequences in additive barriers and border effects, impacting flora and wildlife every bit good as the biophysical environment. Climate alteration is besides a long term force per unit area to the natural environment which may bring forth societal and cultural issues.ResponseShort Term Management Strategies Education of the regional population, every bit good as visitants to the part, could be accomplished through the installing of more effectual marks and warnings of forbidden activities so as to convey the negative impacts of urban development within tropical rain forests. Decreasing the force per unit areas from uncluttering and atomization could be accomplished through presenting buffer zones, wildlife corridors, well linking tree canopies across roads and other additive barriers and perchance even constructing elevated roads to let the transition of wildlife and cut down wildlife deceases. More effectual ordinances, such as censoring the building of fencings and the glade of flora, curtailing H2O usage, curtailing the figure of domestic animate beings per family and compulsory fixing of these animate beings, censoring of sewerage systems and execution of bio-recycling, and the mandatory installing of solar power could be implemented to cut down force per unit areas on the rain fore st. The replanting of native flora along river and creeks Bankss every bit good as along waysides could besides cut down force per unit areas, peculiarly eroding. Long Term Management Strategies To cut down the impacts of generators, such as noise and leaking fuel pollution, the debut of environmentally appropriate electricity, such as carefully constructed powerlines, and low-impact hydro-power or air current power, over clip may be a feasible solution. To cut down the sum of waste produced that may potentially do injury to the environment, a new trash disposal system could be implemented. This system should supply inducements for recycling and the minimisation of waste, for illustration, through taking the waste charge from local authorities rates and implementing a system in which occupants pay 10 cents per kg of general waste, while reimbursing occupants 5 cents per kg of separated recycled waste. Residents should be provided with four little bins in which waste could easy be separated into paper, plastic, glass and general waste. Increasing local authorities rates on belongingss within this WTWHA could function to deter any farther urban development or promote more belo ngings proprietors to come in into authorities buy-back strategies. Implementing the decrease or limitation of visitants over clip to the country in the moisture season may besides alleviate some force per unit areas on the natural environment and occupants who do non trust on touristry may be happy to hold a respite.Problems That May Arise From Response ActionsPromoting roads to let the transition of wildlife may do devastation or increased impact during the building stage and may non be cost effectual. Residents may non accept the stricter execution of ordinances or the rise in rates which may take to drawn-out legal statements appealing the ordinances across different degrees of authorities. Political recoil may besides originate from the debut of such steps, and some of the ordinances may necessitate to be examined under province or federal statute law. Implementing electricity within this sensitive country may do more injury than the pollution from the generators, such as makin g additive barriers and increased wildlife deceases if powerlines were used. The debut of new recycling steps may non do a positive reaction ; alternatively occupants may take to illicitly dump their waste, which will do more environmental injury. Additionally, cut downing touristry for periods of clip in the part may take to a big economic loss for the part.DecisionUrban development in the Cow Bay Region affects the province of the World Heritage tropical rain forest in the country. The debut of substructure, a lasting population and big Numberss of visitants and traffic have placed force per unit area on this sensitive natural environment. To conserve this country, response steps to these force per unit areas are required so as to diminish the jobs of additive barriers and border effects that result from glade and atomization.

Global economic and marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Global economic and marketing - Essay Example 1.3 Decreasing the price of a commodity does not necessarily mean that a business establishment will realise profits. This is because there are other market forces such as competition that decide the price at which good and services are to be offered in the market. This being the case the management of the company should perform an assessment of the market in order to understand how various factors affect the price and demand of transport. After doing so the company will be well equipped to know to which level they should lower their prices in order to enjoy profits. Question two 2.1 One notices that changes in the income tax change in different ways from 2008 to 2013. This can be attributed to various factors that force the government to adopt taxation policies. For instance, when the government is running on a deficit budget then it is within reason that the government increases the income tax rate or tax band in order to increase its revenue. From the data provided one establishes the United Kingdom does not increase the tax rate but it increases the tax band. This is considered by various scholars as a good policy to adopt when allocate tax revenue especially in economic turmoil times. The tax system of the United Kingdom is designed in a manner in which those who earn minimum wages are charged lower taxes than those who earn higher amounts. For instance a person who earns 150,000 pounds is charged a higher tax rate when compared to one who earns 10, 000 pounds. This is so since the one earning above 150,000 falls under three different tax bands with three different tax rate each higher than the other. As a result their salary is deducted a considerable amount of their tax money. The United Kingdom government employs a tax system based on tax bands rather than increasing tax rates in order to ensure that low income earners are not deducted huge sums of money as income tax while at the same time the government continues to earn more revenue from those earnin g high incomes. In short, it is a good policy adopted since the latter complements the previous. 2.2 Income level 1 - ?10,000 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Personal allowance ?6,035 ?6,475 ?6,475 ?7,475 ?8,105 Income after reduction of personal allowance

Scotland and Saudi Arabia Nations Population Census Records Research Paper

Scotland and Saudi Arabia Nations Population Census Records - Research Paper Example To build pyramids, the Egyptian government would conduct a census so as to plan for people to be involved besides the need to redistribute land due to the yearly flooding of river Nile. Censuses can be traced back to the times when Romans and Greeks would do this task even before Christ was born. Men in the empire of Rome would be ordered to return to their places of origin so that the exercise would be undertaken. (ons.gov.uk, 2008) This study is set out to discuss the nations of Scotland and Saudi Arabia with a specific focus on population census records. A comparison will be done and the befitting answer to the various tasks will be provided regarding this. In every scenario, Scottish census records will be looked at first before proceeding to Saudi Arabia. The information from the displayed table may be of help to private researchers who may want to determine the average number of persons each family has in Scotland and also determine the trends in the changes of family size to tell whether they are diminishing, stagnated or increasing in terms of persons per household. This information would also be important to other stakeholders like the Health Ministry to come up with conclusions on family planning issues. Table 2 could be used by civil servants to count on the dependency ratio, the number of people in the labor force and those with sustainable sources of income. This would also be helpful to the government to determine the number of drugs, food, and other essential resources to distribute as well as future prospects on the labor force. This would be useful to private researchers where they may want to determine aggregate expenditure in households.  

Film and Media Studies - History of Broadcasting - Advertising the Essay

Film and Media Studies - History of Broadcasting - Advertising the American Dream - Essay Example Pepsi takes this parable a step further with their commercial. Before drinking the Pepsi, the boy is uninspired and most likely tired of the life he is currently living. After drinking the Pepsi, he is filled with energy and uses this energy to practice drumming around town. He does not have a drum set, probably because of his family’s economic status and capital, and he does not need one because he drank Pepsi and now he can achieve the once-thought-of-as impossible. A young Hispanic boy starts off in by an apartment complex in this commercial, and by using an urban Hispanic setting with a monotone color scheme, a sense of confinement is instilled and something must be done about it. With this set-up, Pepsi comes in to â€Å"save the day† or, in this case, this boy’s life from normality. Pepsi’s product promises to lift this particular Hispanic youth out of a lower-middle class inner-city barrio environment into a drummer for a popular band. Once the boy has tried the product, he becomes inspired giving him confidence and motivation to follow his dream of becoming a drummer. And while everyone else is still living their mundane lives, he has transcended this barrio environment to pursue his dream. He ascends to the high-class stardom status instantaneously in the commercial. He is suddenly taken out of the boring lifestyle he was living in, ages about ten years older, and is put in a rock band on stage entertaining a massive crowd of fans most likely with his professional drumming. The boy’s younger years are portrayed in the sunlight, but not necessarily in a cheerful, happy way. The sun just seems to be part of the whole monotonous picture. When the boy’s dream is finally reached, the whole set-up is changed. Instead of it being day, it is night (or at least in an indoor stadium or concert hall). The only light is the light coming from the stage lights, which represent the

Biocentric Egalitarianism and Land Ethic Term Paper

Biocentric Egalitarianism and Land Ethic - Term Paper Example Biocentric egalitarianism advocates for the respect of non-human beings based on moral principles and values. These views reflect similar arguments that humans depend on nature to survive and thus the earth would be a better place without humans (Jonge 23). However, a critical analysis suggests that the moral duty to respect nature can conflict other moral duties. Kantian Moral Philosophy One example where duty to respect can conflict other moral duties is the application of Kant’s theory about animal rights. Kantian moral philosophy asserts that animals are mere instruments, which may be used for human purpose (Korsgaard 3). According Korsgaard, Kant’s point of view about legal rights is not to protect human interests, but to enable each citizen to act justly and for what is good. Kant’s moral philosophy underlines that non-rational animals lack the kind of freedom that rights protect. In particular, it is because human beings are rational beings that they are a ble to choose how they want to live (5). However, Kant’s philosophy extends the rights held by human beings to include property rights. According to Kant we have the moral obligation to claim property including animals, and the legal status of such animals is the direct correlate of their moral status as mere means (instruments) (5). Further, according to Kant, we have no moral duty to animals. In contrast, biocentrism upholds the need to make moral consideration towards non-human species. From this perspective, the conflict between Kant’s moral philosophy and the duty to respect nature as maintained by non-anthropocentric ethical position remains apparent with regard to animal rights. To resolve the conflict between Kant’s theory and biocentrism regarding animal rights, it is important to address the interpretation problems associated with the humanity formula. This is especially because faced with such a situation would require one to decide to follow the huma nity formulary as applied by Kant or to stick with the rationality formulary defined in biocentrism. Libertarianism Another example of a conflict between non-anthropocentric ethical position about duty to respect nature and other moral duties is the issue of ‘forest justice’ as seen in the lenses of libertarianism. According to libertarianism, forests and indeed biodiversity, has value only to the extent that it contributes to the expansion of individual freedom (Holsinka 3). The ‘forest justice’ can be illustrated by attempts by governments to transfer property rights to local communities to enable them benefit from forest resources. In anthropocentric ethical philosophy, human beings are viewed as separate identities based on self-interest and altruistic humanism. According to Kopnina, anthropocentrism grants intrinsic value to human beings. On the other hand, biocentrism emphasizes on the intrinsic value for ecosystems including humans, plant and animal species. This disconnect represents a broader inconsistency within the fields of environmental conservation. The main concern is that support for environmental conservation appears to be motivated by utilitarian and instrumental ethics. Just like biodiversity, we place value on forests because we think we might need it, we like it or we ought to. Non-anthropocentric ethical position would emphasize on the instrumental value of forests-that

The downside of trusted computing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The downside of trusted computing - Essay Example The problem comes up with the main purpose of the chip. It is technically achievable with trusted computing, to protect the hardware for its possessor as well as to secure it against its holder. Other related issues comprise of the exploitation of validation of software remotely. In this case, the maker and not the client who possesses the computer system make a decision on what software would be permitted to run ("Weighing the pros and cons of the Trusted Computing Platform," n.d.). Another concern is that client action in these circumstances might be recorded in a proprietary database without the knowledge of the user. In this case, user privacy happens to be an issue as well as forming a security acquiescence conflict. Designs that exist are essentially damaged since they expose the public to new dangers of anti-consumer as well as anti-competitive behavior. Although the hardware is employed as per published specifications, it can still be utilized in a manner that harms computer possessors. Second, makers of certain trusted computers as well as components may surreptitiously implement them wrongly ("Weighing the pros and cons of the Trusted Computing Platform," n.d.). Hardware enrichments may be one technique to develop computer safety ("Trusted Computing: Promise and Risk | Electronic Frontier Foundation," n.d.). Treating computer holders as enemies is not growth in computer security. The owner control, interoperability and competition as well as similar issues intrinsic to the NCSCB and TCG approach are very serious that we advocate against embracing these trusted computing technologies up to the time these issues have been

Criminal behavior and behavior disorders Research Paper

Criminal behavior and behavior disorders - Research Paper Example What people eat and take into their bodies may control their behaviors. In some instances, excessive amounts of harmful substances such as food dyes and artificial colors and flavors seem to provoke hostile, impulsive, and otherwise antisocial behaviors. Vitamin deficiency and dependency can also have an effect on behavior; studies show that a major problem proportion of all schizophrenics and children with learning and behavioral disorders are dependent on vitamins B3 and B6. Another suspected nutritional influence on behavior is a diet high in sugar and carbohydrates. Diets high in sugar and carbohydrate have been linked to violence, high aggression, and associated with attention span deficiencies. Research shows that among adolescent males, iron deficiency is directly associated with aggressive behavior. Furthermore, one study found that iron deficiency was nearly twice as prevalent in a group of incarcerated adolescents as among their non- incarcerated peers. Research has also li nked hypoglycemia to outbursts of antisocial behavior and violence. These bio-criminologists, who believe that food and crime are associated, think that if diet can be improved then the frequency or violent behavior would be reduced. Biosocial theorists also have been looking at the link between hormonal levels and violent behavior. Hormones exert a strong influence on behavior testosterone, and other androgens, are probably the most important hormones in criminology. Testosterone has been related to aggressive criminal behavior in a number of studies, almost as many as those linking crime to the female menstrual cycle. It is believed that high levels of testosterone reduce a persons social integration, making them more of a loner, and freeing them up to deviate from societys norms. Female menstrual cycles have been linked to irritability, aggression, and a patterned increase in hostility. Recent studies have linked dangerous

International trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

International trade - Essay Example It will then look and how tariffs, quotas and subsidies affect real income in small countries. Lastly, it will look at arguments against free trade and their validity from a national perspective. The Ricardian Model of International Trade The Ricardian model of international trade is one of the earliest models of international trade. This model of trade emphasizes comparative advantage that comes about due to technological differences which act as a critical factor behind trading activities. Unlike the other theories of international trade that argue that trade only benefits certain countries and is unfavorable to others, this model contradicts this notion arguing that trade is beneficial for all countries that take part in the international trade (Feenstra, 2003). Its built on six basic assumptions: (1) Two countries are involved in the trade; (2) there are only two goods produced; (3) labor is the sole factor of production (Goodwin, Nelson, Harris, Roach, & Devine, 2009); (4) there is perfect competition across all markets such that goods are priced at cost in the nations producing them; (5) an assumption that labor is homogeneous within domestic boundaries, however, its productivity is different across the nations; and (6) the goods produced are viewed as homogeneous across the countries (Stern, 2011). According to this model of trade, gains from the trade become possible because of the comparative advantage. The basic idea is that if a country has to benefit from the trade, it is the country’s opportunity cost that matters and not its actual costs. The opportunity cost of a given product (a) is how much of some other product, (b); one country has to give up in order to produce one unit of the other product (a) (Carbaugh, 2010). Based on this explanation therefore, each country will stand to benefit only if it produces a particular good for which it has the lowest opportunity cost. A country’s opportunity cost is what will create gain in the fr ee trade. The gains from the trade are made possible due to comparative advantage that one country has over the other. Comparative advantage comes in if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of others goods is less compared to the other country. Thus if the opportunity cost of country A is lower than the opportunity cost of country B, then country A has a comparative advantage over country B. Therefore both countries benefit from the free trade if each country exports the goods with which it has a comparative advantage over the other. The Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) Model of Trade Heckscher and Ohlin in there theory explain that the basis for international trade is due to factor endowments. This theory is an advancement of the Ricardian model of international trade that advocated for the comparative advantage as the basis for international trade. The Ricardian model failed to explain how the comparative cost advantage exists (Goodwin, Nelson, Harris, Roach, & Devine, 2009). This theory on the other hand proposes that this difference in comparative costs is due to: (1) differences in endowment of the factors of production; (2) the fact that production is dependent on the factors of production which are used with different degrees of intensity in the two countries. Therefore, this theory advances that the differences in factor intensities in the production functions of goods and the actual differences in relative factor endowments of the countries which explain international differences in the

Nursing related Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Nursing related - Assignment Example he privileges should be awarded according to the hard work and educational standards of the APN while still ensuring they follow the set legal requirements and procedures of the state. This component will be met through establishing good relationship with the credentialing members and the rest of the staff for support as well as proving my effectiveness and efficiency in the institution. The most eminent of the challenges is the privacy issue. Privacy is crucial in any institution of the patient’s records. With technology, the privacy challenge has increased tremendously due to sharing of hospital server and hence leaving the information available to hackers. The most effective of the solutions is to separate to keep on changing the passwords as the most basic of the solution as well as establish different access codes that need specific identification information that is only given to the hospital staff. The codes should also be constantly changed to prevent the information from easy access. The backup information should be accessed by very few individuals and only available with high security

Development of the United Kingdom Essay Example for Free

Development of the United Kingdom Essay Officially known as the Republic of Ghana, it was Europe’s first trading partner in sub-Saharan Africa – initially trading in gold and then later as a primary supplier of slaves. Although it was subsequently colonized by the British, it later became the first country in Africa to obtain independence from its colonizer (BBC News). Ghana came into existence in 1957 when what was then known as the Gold Coast acquired its independence from the British. Situated along the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa (see U. S. State Department map reproduced below), the country occupies an area of about 238,538 sq. km. composed of plains, rainforest, and some scrubland (U. S. State Department). Its capital city is Accra (population: 3 million) and the other principal cities are Kumasi, with an estimated population of 1 million, Tema (500,000), and Sekondi-Takoradi (population: 370,000). English has been designated official language of the Ghanaians but several dialects are spoken like Akan, which is spoken by about 49% of the population, Mole-Dagbani (16%), Ewe (13%), Ga-Adangbe (8%), and Guan, the dialect of 4% of the population. Sixty-nine percent of its estimated population of 23 million are Christians while 15. 6% are Muslims. Indigenous religious beliefs are being practiced by 8. 5% of Ghanaians. Although it existed as a democratic republic since its independence in 1957, the constitution of Ghana took effect only on January 7, 1993 (U. S. State Department). The cultural practices of Ghanaians which are mainly related to â€Å"conception, childbirth, and childrearing† consist of some harmful customs and traditions. One of these is â€Å"female genital mutilation (FGM). † This is a procedure which is conducted to partially or totally remove the external genitalia of a girl to turn her into a real woman. Another is a belief in dietary taboos which often leads to anemia or nutritional deficiency on the part of pregnant women. In Ghana, when a marriage does not produce an offspring after two years, it is considered defective. After a woman gives birth, the Ghanaians believe that burying the placenta near the house of the family would prevent the child from growing up into an errant or rebellious individual. In addition, they would wait for eight days after birth before naming the child and treating the umbilical cord with herbal preparations (Nyinah). Ghana is rich in natural resources with gold and cocoa being two of its major dollar earners. Its other export products are timber, diamonds, aluminum, tuna, manganese ore, and bauxite. In spite of this, the country still relies heavily on the assistance of international financial and technical institutions to remain viable. Thirty-five percent of its gross domestic product comes from the agricultural sector which also accounts for 55% of total employment in the country, mostly in the form of small landowners. Aside from seeking debt relief in 2002 under the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) program, Ghana was also one of the beneficiaries of the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative which came into force in 2006 (CIA World Factbook). As of 2006, total exports reached an estimated $3. 9 billion while imports totaled $6. 8 billion. Identified trade partners were the United States, the United Kingdom, China, Germany, France, Spain, Nigeria, the Netherlands, and Togo (U. S. State Department). Statistics gleaned by Global Health Reporting. org from the CIA World Factbook and a report published by UNAIDS in May 2006 about the global epidemic on AIDS showed that as at end of 2005, an estimated 29,000 had already died from AIDS in Ghana, leaving behind them about 170,000 children below 17 years old who had lost one or both parents to the disease. The same sources also revealed that by the end of 2005, there were 320,000 Ghanaians who were living with HIV/AIDS, 25,000 of whom were children below 14 years old. Aside from AIDS, another major health concern of the country is malaria. With about three million new cases being reported every year, malaria accounts for approximately 61% of total hospital admissions in the country among children below five years old (Global Health Reporting. org). In its fight against AIDS, malaria, and other diseases which have been plaguing Ghanaians, the country has received varying degrees of support from international organizations such as the World Health Organization, Global Fund To Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, the World Bank, the Department for International Development of the United Kingdom, and the United Nations Children’s Fund (Accra Daily Mail, 3/17 as cited in Global Health Reporting. org). On March 17, 2008, a campaign named â€Å"Voices for Malaria-Free Future† was launched in the country to educate the people about the techniques and the key concepts and practices used in fighting malaria. Rosemary Ardayfio, who represented the media in the launching ceremony, announced the formation of the Media Malaria Network composed of journalists from the print and online organizations. Ardayfio explained that aside from recognizing the role of the different media organizations in malaria advocacy, the network specifically aims â€Å"to disseminate information about the use of insecticide-treated nets and appropriate medication† (Global Health Reporting. org). Ghana was among the 177 countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol which aims to require industrialized countries to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases to prevent global warming (UNFCCC). In addition, Ghana was also a party to other international agreements governing hazardous wastes, biodiversity, endangered species, law of the sea, ship pollution, environmental modification, ozone layer protection, wetlands, and tropical timber (CIA World Factbook). The Republic of Ghana faces a bright future. It is endowed with plenty of natural resources. Its leadership has commitment itself to free and compulsory basic education. In fact, its â€Å"free, compulsory, universal basic education (FCUBE)† which was launched in 1996 has been labeled the â€Å"most ambitious pre-tertiary education programs in West Africa† (U. S. State Department). It has also been described as a â€Å"well-administered country by regional standards† and considered a model for economic and political reforms in the region. And, most of all, a major oil reserve was discovered in 2007 (BBC News). For these reasons alone, the country and its people have no reason to remain impoverished. Works Cited BBC News. â€Å"Country profile: Ghana. † International version. 6 February 2008. 22 March 2008. http://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355. stm CIA World Factbook. â€Å"Ghana. † 6 March 2008. 22 March 2008. https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh. html Global Health Reporting. org. â€Å"Ghana. † 22 March 2008. http://globalhealthreporting. org/countries/ghana. asp? collID=11id=144malID=187 tbID=188hivIC=189malIC=190tbIC=191map=192con=Ghanap=1 Nyinah, S. â€Å"Cultural practices in Ghana. † World Health. March-April 1997. 22 March 2008. http://www. popline. org/docs/1204/126178. html UNFCCC. â€Å"Kyoto Protocol. † 22 March 2008. http://unfccc. int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830. php U. S. State Department. â€Å"Background note: Ghana. † January 2008. 22 March 2008. http://www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2860. htm

Edward taylor and Metaphor Essay Example for Free

Edward taylor and Metaphor Essay The Beauty of Metaphor A Metaphor is defined as a grammatical device that â€Å"compares two different ideas by speaking of one in terms of the other. It asserts that one thing is another thing.† One of the best poets at using the metaphor is Edward Taylor, an intellectual New English Puritan. In his â€Å"Meditation One,† Taylor compares â€Å"God’s Matchless Love† to water, saying that it fills â€Å"Heaven to the Brim!† Then, in his â€Å"The Reflection,† Taylor says â€Å"Earth† was once a â€Å"Paradise of Heaven. † In both instances, Edward Taylor calls one thing something to help emphasize the message he is trying to portray, but ultimately, his metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† is more effective as it reflects a greater idea. Edward Taylor’s use of metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† and â€Å"The Reflection† shows how he used metaphors to compare an important topic in his poem to something more relatable, but his metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† is more effective as it portrays a greater message. Edward Taylor’s use of Metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† helps portray his message of Gods never ending love for us. In Line 7, Edward Taylor starts the sentence of by saying â€Å"Oh, Matchless Love!filling Heaven to the Brim!† Taylor compares the incomparable love of God to water, as he says it will fill heaven â€Å"to the brim.† By using the verb â€Å"filling,† the reader automatically thinks of something more relatable to his knowledge, water in context to a drink. When one pours water in, the water fills the cup. Ultimately, through his diction choice and use of metaphor, Taylor considers God’s love to be something that fills humanities’ needs. Since it can fill â€Å"Heaven,† it can fill our souls with a never ending joy. This is why Edward Taylor’s use of metaphor is so effective, it ulaitmely leads to a bigger, more important conclusion that can be easily derived through his relatable examples. This metaphor, in comparison to the one in â€Å"The Reflection†, is more effective as it plays a vital role in the establishment of a major theme in the poem. Edward Taylor’s use of metaphor in â€Å"The Reflection† helps portray his message that Earth was once a heavenly place until it was corrupted with sin. In Line 19, Edward Taylor starts the sentence off by saying â€Å"Earth once  was Paradise of Heaven Below.† 1Divine life, living and dead, whatever the case may be, existed on Earth at one period of time, until the corruptness of sin took over the Godly world. In this metaphor, Edward Taylor says that Earth once â€Å"was† a Paradise of Heaven Below, or, in other words, that Earth was once a Heavenly place. In this case, Taylor’s metaphor is much more simple, he calls one thing something else. The metaphor’s main puropose in this case is to call earth, in a past time, a Godly place, until the sinful nature of Adam and Eve led to the abolishment of Earth’s divineness Due to its simplistic nature, and the message that it emphasizes, this metaphor is not as effective as the previous me taphor. In conclusion, Edward Taylor uses metaphor to perfection.2 To think brillianty and to write brilliantly are two completely different things, and Edward Taylor does both. In both cases, Edward Taylor uses metaphor to call one thing something else. In â€Å"Meditation One,† He calls God’s love water, and in â€Å"The Reflection,† calls Earth a once Divine place. Ultimately, in â€Å"Meditation One,† his use of Metaphor is more effective because it conveys a more important message of God’s undeniable love for us.

Separation of Photosynthetic Pigments: Paper Chromatography

Separation of Photosynthetic Pigments: Paper Chromatography Plant pigments have the ability to absorb visible light, which can be used in order to harvest energy for photochemical reactions. There are a variety of pigments present in plants, and for this experiment, these pigments were separated using paper chromatography. Absorbance spectrophotometry was also used in order to obtain the different absorbances of the pigments. The data was then used to compare relative chlorophyll content in both old and young leaves, and to identify the pigments present in the leaves. It was seen that chlorophyll a and b were present, and young leaves yielded more chlorophyll than old leaves as reflected by the high absorbance of the young leaf extract as compared to the old leaf extract. The performance of this experiment can be deemed successful in separating pigments, however identification of the pigment concentration could also be done to better quantify the amount of pigment in the leaves. INTRODUCTION Chromatography is a technique used to separate complex mixtures between a stationary phase and a mobile phase. (Craig) There are several types of chromatography, namely: gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, affinity chromatography, adsorption chromatography, partition chromatography, and molecular exclusion chromatography. (Carrier, Bordonaro and Yip) The concept behind this process is that the smaller the affinity a molecule has for the stationary phase, the faster it migrates. The stationary phase varies depending on the type of chromatography used (Carrier, Bordonaro and Yip). Most of the time, chromatography is used for purification techniques. The process is also used in separation of substances, an example of which is plant pigments. The result of chromatography is a chromatogram. From the chromatogram, different information about the test sample can be attained. By counting the number of peaks in the chromatogram, one can deduce the complexity of the mixture. The more peaks there are, the more complex the mixture is. Also, qualitative information about the composition of the mixture can be deduced by comparing the peak positions with a standard. Quantitative assessment of the relative concentration of the components can also be attained by comparing the peak areas (Carrier, Bordonaro and Yip). In this experiment, chromatography was used to separate pigments extracted from old and young leaves. The pigments were further identified using absorbance spectrophotometry. MATERIALS AND METHODS For this experiment, photosynthetic pigments were separated through paper chromatography and the absorption spectra of these were measured through absorbance spectrophotometry. Pigment Extraction Old and young leaf samples were obtained around the UP campus. Each set of samples was shredded into smaller pieces and weighed to twenty grams. Using mortar and pestle, each sample was immersed in 50 ml acetone and ground thoroughly to fully extract the chloroplast pigments. After this, the extracts were filtered by using filter paper and Buchner funnel. The eluted extracts were collected in separate beakers and transferred into separate test tubes, and labelled accordingly as OLD and YOUNG. Paper Chromatography The extract from young leaves was subjected to paper chromatography. Three pieces of 3cm x 11cm Whatman no. 42 filter paper were cut out. The sheets of paper were marked 3 cm from one end, and 2 cm from the other. The 3cm-point served as the point where the extract would be loaded, while the 2cm-point dictates the point of termination of the chromatogram. This end was tied with a string so that it could easily be suspended on a Gatorade bottle cap. With a Pasteur pipette, one drop of extract was loaded on each sheet of the filter paper. To further saturate the loading, the filter paper sheets were loaded ten times. However, for each loading, the previous spot was allowed to dry before an additional drop of extract was added. Developing solvent of petroleum ether was prepared. The solvent was then poured into three Gatorade bottles, filling only up to two centimetres of the bottle. The paper strips were then secured on the bottle caps with tape and hung, with its end touching the developing solvent, but not the loaded extract. The development of the chromatogram was terminated after the pigments or the developing solvent has reached the 2cm-line. Of the three chromatograms, only one was presented for the results because it has the clearest separation. Absorbance Spectrophotometry Absorbance spectrophotometry was also done to obtain absorbance spectra of the different pigments present in leaves. Both the old and young leaf extracts were used and the absorbances of extracts were obtained for the following wavelengths (nm): 400, 450, 470, 500, 550, 600, 647, 650, 663, 700. Two trials were done per leaf sample. The absorbances obtained were then plotted against wavelength. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pigments are defined as substances in plants that are able to absorb visible light. These can be classified into three basic groups. (University of California Berkeley, 2006) The first are the chlorophylls which are greenish pigments containing a porphyrin ring. The ring contains several double bonds which makes it stable, and at the same time allows free migration of electrons. In this way, when sunlight strikes the plant surface, electrons in the pigment molecules of the chloroplast thylakoid become excited which in turn pass on this excitation to the photosystems that begins the series of cellular events that generate oxygen and sugar. Four species of chlorophyll a, b, c, and d are known. Chlorophyll a is the primary photosynthetic pigment in all higher plants, algae, and the cyanobacteria. Chlorophyll b is found virtually in all higher plants and green algae, differing from the former only in that a formyl group substitutes for the methyl group in ring II. Chlorophyll c is meanwhile found in the diatoms, dinoflagellates, and brown algae and lacks the phytol tail of chlorophyll a. Lastly, chlorophyll d is found only in the red algae and has an (-O-CHO) group in place of the (-CH=CH2) group on ring I of chlorophyll a. (Taiz and Zeiger, 2008) The second class of pigments are the carotenoids. They are usually red, orange, or yellow pigments composed of two small six-carbon rings connected by a chain of carbon atoms. Their high carbon content prevents them from dissolving in water and as such they must be attached to membranes within the cell. They have several functions, including the broadening of the spectrum of colors able to drive photosynthesis (especially in seasons with shortened days such as fall and winter), and in photoprotection; they are able to absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that can otherwise damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen to produce reactive oxidative molecules that can damage the cell. (Cain, et. Al, 2011) The third class of pigments are the phycobilins. They are water-soluble pigments found in the chloroplast stroma or the cell cytoplasm. Occurring only in the Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta, they are efficient in absorbing light wavelengths that are not well absorbed by chlorophyll a. These pigments are bound to phycobiliproteins which pass on the absorbed light energy to chloroplasts for photosynthesis. Knowledge of which types of pigments are present in a plant is useful in the field of agriculture. Using this information, lights that promoting the optimal growth of plants having certain pigments can be developed, increasing their yield. Additionally, pigments extracted from plants can be used as dyes in scientific research. One way of determining the pigments present in a plant sample is through paper chromatography. Paper chromatography separates pigments present in the plant sample based on their solubilities in the solvent; compounds which are very soluble move along with the advancing solvent front, while less soluble compounds travel slowly through the paper, well behind the solvent front. Chlorophyll a is slightly soluble in a 3:1:1 mixture of petroleum ether, acetone, and water (which was the resulting mixture used in the study), while carotenoids are very soluble in this system. This difference in solubility should allow the separation of chlorophyll a from the carotenoids and chlorophyll b, which is less soluble than chlorophyll a. (Bowen and Baxter, 1980) The following chromatogram was obtained from the chromatography done in the study. chlorophyll B chlorophyll A carotenoid Figure 1. Obtained chromatogram from the paper chromatography of (young or old?) leaf extracts. Only one trial was used in the identification of pigments, with the topmost band determined to be a carotenoid, followed by chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B. The first pigment band was identified as a carotenoid due to its yellow-orange color, the second band identified as chlorophyll A due to its darker green color, and the third band identified as chlorophyll B due to its yellow-green color. The study is said to be a success in this respect as the results obtained matched the theoretical results. Additionally, pigments can also be identified based on the value of their retention factor; the retention factor (Rf) is calculated as the distance the pigment travels (in centimeters) divided by the distance the solvent travels (in centimeters). Standard values of the Rf are compared to the calculated values and the closest standard value that matches the calculated value is used to identify the pigment. This step however, was no longer done in the study. Figure 2. A graph showing the absorbance obtained from the old and young leaf extracts through absorptive spectrophotometry. Spectrophotometry can be utilized for measuring the chlorophyll content of a leaf by measuring the absorbances of the plant extract at red and far red regions of the visible light spectrum. The absorbance of the extract is directly proportional to its chlorophyll content. The experiment measured the absorbances of old and young leaves coming from the same plant in order to compare their chlorophyll content. In the experiment, the pigments from old and young plants were subjected to spectrophotometry to identify which wavelength would yield the highest absorption therefore identifying the pigments present, and also compare at which level of maturity plants would yield more chlorophyll. The former is possible because plant pigments participate in photosynthesis by absorbing light, and there is the optimal wavelength wherein they can absorb the most amount of light and can therefore enhance the process of photosynthesis. Pigments in seed plants may be present as chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids, all with varying abundance. For the old and leaf samples, it can be seen that the measured absorbances peaked at two wavelengths (Figure 2). The first peak is around 450-470 nm while the second peak is around 663 nm. This data implies that most of the pigment extracted must be from chlorophyll a and b, since theoretically, these pigments peak at 430-450 nm and 640-660 nm. It should also be remembered that peaks in an absorbance vs. wavelength pigment spectra means that these pigments absorb and utilize light best in these wavelengths. In Figure 3 below, the other pigments and corresponding peak wavelengths can be seen. Figure 3. Absorption spectra of pigments found in seed plants Aside from knowing the pigments present in the leaves, the graph could also show the relative amount of chlorophyll present in the leaves. Theoretically, older leaves contain much more chlorophyll than younger leaves; this is contrary to the results as depicted by Fig. 2. These results can only make sense if the plant from which the extract was taken from has a magnesium deficiency, assuming that no methodological error was committed. Plant with Mg deficiency tend to sequester Mg from old leaves by degrading chlorophyll and then transporting the retrieved Mg to the younger leaves which have higher photosynthetic needs. Other methods of measuring the pigment content of leaves include using chlorophyll content meters, which do not require an extract to be prepared, and the more superior technique known as chlorophyll fluorescence where the ratio of chlorophyll fluorescence at certain wavelengths give a linearly proportional estimation of the chlorophyll content. Literature Cited Hopkins, W.G. HÃ ¼ner, N.P.A. (2009). Introduction to plant physiology (4th ed). Ontario, Canada: John Wiley Sons. Cain, M. L, Jackson, R.B., Minorsky, P.V., Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Wasserman, S.A. (2011). Campbell biology (9th ed). San Francisco, USA: Benjamin/Cummings. University of California Berkeley. (2006). Photosynthetic pigments. Retrieved from http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/g lossary/gloss3/pigments.html on August 23, 2012. Bowen, W. R., Baxter, W. D. (1980). Experimental cell biology: an integrated laboratory guide and text. New York, USA: Macmillan Publishing Co. Taiz L and Zeiger E. (2008). Plant Physiology. 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Hermans C.; Vuylsteke F.; Coppens F.. 2009. Systems Analysis of the responses to long-term magnesium deficiency and restoration in Arabidopsis thaliana.ÂÂ  New PhytologistÂÂ  187: 132-144. Carrier, Rebecca, Julie Bordonaro and Kevin Yip. Chromatography. 1997. 23 August 2012 Retrieved from:http://www.rpi.edu/dept/ chem-eng/Biotech Environ/CHROMO/chromintro. html. Craig, Paul A. Chromatography. 2007. 23 August 2012 Retrieved from: http://people.rit.edu/pac8612/ webionex/website/html/ione8h o9.html. Domestic violence: Prevention and treatment Domestic violence: Prevention and treatment Introduction Domestic violence is a universal phenomenon and more and more governments play importance on it. There are three major types of domestic violence including violent against women, child abuse and elder abuse. Since domestic violence includes primarily of violence against women, we will going to review the situation of violent against women in Hong Kong in this paper. In this study, the term of violence against women will be used instead of wife abuse because violence against women consists not only women who are married legally with the abuser, but also the co-habitees or separated partners, since violence could be continued even the relationship ended. Definitions of violence against women Although the United Nations found violence against women as the major obstacle to the achievement of equality, development and peace for women in 1985 (1), the nations didnt seem to emphasis it. Research showed that every one of three women in the global had ever experienced violence in an intimate relationship. (World Health Organization, 1997)(12) Generally speaking, violence against women refers to those acts totally committed violent against women. In the United Nations General Assembly 1994, violence against women had been defined as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. UN had a rather feminist view that violence against women is an expression of sex inequality and is used to uphold the domination over women and to keep discrimination against women by men. (UN, 1995) The severity of violence against women According to the data of Social Welfare Department of HK, there is an increase in the number of spouse battering from 1,906 in 1998 up to 6,483 in 2008. (SWD, HK. 2008) Over 80% of them are women abuse. The researches related to violence against women in Hong Kong were very rare, they asserted that the situation is getting worse and the government should take it seriously, however. It is about two-third of Tangs survey respondents had at least one time of verbal abuse, (Tang, 1999) Researches showed that around 10% of the survey respondents had experienced at least one time of physical abuse by their male partners. (Tang, 1999; Chan, 2005) Chan (2000, 2005) also noticed that a rather high proportion of victims were having little schooling as well as homemakers. Studies revealed the fact that over 50% of battered women were at the age range of 31 to 40 (Harmony House Report 2007; Chan, 2000) and over 80% were new migrants from Mainland China. (Harmony House Report 2007) Majority of women who experience intimate violence do not report it to the police. (Backman and Coker, 1995) Outline of this paper In the following, we will first go through the forms of violence against women including physical abuse, emotional abuse and sexual abuse. Then, the theories related to violence against women Family perspective and Feminist perspective will be discussed, and the idea of Patriarchal ideology and Confucianism will be addressed. After that, we will look deep into the existing situation in Hong Kong which consist the services provided for the victims and the abusers, the difficulties the victims face, and how Hong Kong government handle domestic violence. In the last part, the intervention strategies like resource allocation, legislation and education that combating this violence issue will be encountered. Forms of violence against women There are three forms of abuse: Physical abuse, psychological abuse and sexual abuse, in which physical abuse is the most common form that abuse men give to their female partners. Physical abuse Physical abuse refers to a physical assault or violent act that attacks the victims physical integrity, like pushes, slaps, pinches, punches, spits, kicks, burns, fractures, locked women in the house, put women in an unsafe places or murder. (Chan, 2000) Dobash et al., (1985) stated that only 3% of assaults are low in physical severity the rest are medium or high. (as cited in Mullender, 1996) Physical abuse usually accompanied by emotional abuse. Psychological or emotional abuse Psychological abuse, also referred to as emotional abuse, is a kind of emotional or psychological attacks or the neglect of psychological or emotional needs, described a person subjecting or exposing another to behavior that is psychologically harmful. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_abuse) Actually, there is no universal accepted definition for emotional abuse. Here I adopted the definition from U.S. Department of Justice that emotional abuse is causing fear by intimidation, verbal or non-verbal, threatening physical harm to self, partner, children, or partners family or friends, destruction of pets and property, forcing isolation from family, friends, or school or work.(U.S. Department of Justice, Edleson, 1984) Emotional abuse, differ from physical abuse and sexual abuse, is a continued and repetitive behavior, used to harden fear to reinforce the control of the abuser so as to strengthen the obedience and passive acceptance to the abuser. Sexual abuse Sexual abuse is a dissented and pressurized sexual behavior or acts, forced by one person upon another. Sometimes the abuser compels unwanted sexual activity without physical force by using their position of trust but mostly physical abuse comes with sexual abuse. According to Chan (2000), those behaviors includes rape or sexual assault, incest coerced by force, inappropriate touching, exposure of genitalia, force the partner to have sexy dressing or ignoring ones sexual character. Russell (1990) reminded us that spousal sexual abuse is one kind of domestic violence which may sometimes constitute marital rape or an assault. Causes of the problem Theories related to Violence against women The universality of domestic violence caused many scholars to explore the reasons for violence against women. Family perspective Family perspective is one of the perspectives the scholars like to adopt. This approach believed that the behavior of a family member is influenced by the responses or feedback of other members. It seemed violence as a symmetrical between both sexes, and viewed individual and family relation as the core for the explanation for domestic violence, suggested a reduction in structural stresses and work on individual pathologies in dealing with the problem. Obviously the Hong Kong government had adapted this perspective in explaining the causes of domestic violence as it stressed on maintaining the function of the family or improving marital relationships. (Leung, 2008) Feminist perspective On the other hand, some scholars explained violence against women abuse from the view of feminist theory which locates the root of violence against women in a social-structural context rather than a private or family problem. (United Nation, 1989; Adam, 1998) This approach believed that women do not have equal rights and do not have institutional power, instead, women are considered as inferior and subordinate, and more serious, the properties to men. (United Nation, 1989) As the tolerance for violence act against women are vary across culture, the feminist give explanation that it is due to different levels of patriarchal values across cultures. (Bui Morash, 1999; Nayak et al.2003) The endorsement of the beliefs regarding rape and spousal physical violence and the tendency of blaming the victim showed that both gender and sociocultural factors had great impact on the attitudes toward violence against women. (Nayak et al. 2003) Tang (1999) recommended patriarchy theory in explaining violence against women in Chinese societies. Patriarchal ideology Patriarchy Patriarchy is a system of society in which men holding the determination power over women and children of the household. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy) Feminists believed that violence against women is rooted in a patriarchal system which men keep women in a subordinate position through the use of control, usually enhanced through existing economics, social, and political, and legal dimensions. Socialization process help strengthen men to subordinate women. (Sugarmen and Frankel, 1996) Many scholars agreed that the social structure created and maintained under the patriarchy keep on justified the male dominant beliefs of womens inferior status. (Tang, 1999; Anderson, 1988; Sugarmen and Frankel, 1996) Patriarchal ideology and Confucianism Confucianism which strengthens patriarchal system had great impact in Chinese society. Women lived under the ethical norms of Confucianism were suppressed into inferior, dependent, and submissive status, and are expected to obey the men. In the past thousand years, Chinese women followed womanhood decencies like san cong si de (three obedience and four virtues) and xian qi liang mu, (a virtuous wife and a good mother) (Tang, 1999) see contributing male offsprings to their husbands lineage and serving her husband as her responsibilities. The social norms in Chinese society accept using physical force to discipline female family members, for those fail to live up their prescribed roles will result in patraiarchal brutality under the rules of the family. Therefore, it is legal for a man to afford all forms of violence against women, usually physical abuse. On the other hand, the Chinese culture of interpersonal harmony forced wives to keep on tolerating the inequality so as to protect the reputation and stability of their families. Research showed that around half of the surveyed women mentioned cultural reasons for staying with their partner. (Adam, 1998) Therefore, the extent of violence against women has been largely hidden and widely denied by our society. Though Chinese women had greater opportunities for education in recent decades, and there is an increase in the acceptance of a greater flexibility of gender norms, decision making power in the household matter still holding in the mens hand. More and more female go out to work, yet they have to do most of the housework. (Choi and Lee, 1997) Chan and Lee believed that traditional patriarchal values are deeply permeated into Chinese family system. Therefore, when wives ask for more gender equality, the husbands may understand as their domination and superiority in the family had been defied, and may react with use of violence. Tang (1999) As the society tolerate towards domestic violence, and the experience of being discrimination when seeking for help, the abused women remained in the relationship. The existing situation in Hong Kong Violence against women in Hong Kong In the past 10 years, there was a rapid increase in spousal abuse. Importantly, more than 80% of victims of spousal abuse in 2008 were female, 60% of the female victims were suffering from physical abuse (SWD, HK, 2008) Harmony House reported that 71% of women had been subjected to violence for over three years. (Harmony House Annual Report 2008-2009) Pahl(1985a) and Binneyet al. (1988) got similar findings. (As cited in Mullender, 1996) Harmony House (Harmony House, 1996/1997 Annual Report) pointed out 41.7% of female victims suffered from both physical and sex abuse, and 24.1% suffered physical, psychological and sexual abuse at the same time. Chan (2000) found that 63.6% of his survey respondents viewed male chauvinism as the major cause of domestic violence which request obedience of the women. It is concluded as influenced by the traditional culture of patriarchal ideology in which female were in an inferior status. It is rather problematic that the mass as well as the front-line professionals such as police officers and social workers were likely to endorse that wife abuse is a private matter or family issue. (Tang, 2005; Leung, 2008) Leung (2008) stated that the occurrence of domestic violence, in the current view of Hong Kong society, is due to lack of communication between family members or because of individuals under pressure. The mainstream believed that both men and women have equal chance of spousal abuse. Therefore, the government did not consider the hidden gender power imbalances in domestic violence during the policy formulating process. Under such ideologies, the services related to domestic violence focus on how to maintain the unity of the family rather the safety of the victims; the police officers view domestic violence as low priority to handle, and discouraged abused women to file their complaints (Leung, 2008), and legal system continue to treat battering as an individual problem rather than criminal behavior (Ferraro, 1989; Leung, 2008) In result, the victims who are in the subordinate status would rather keep quite, while the abusers violent act was intensified. (Leung, 2006)(Tam and Tang, 2005) Service provided for the victims and the abusers There are certain NGOs in Hong Kong care and pay effort in the fighting against domestic violence, providing shelters and services for victims and male batterers, arranging prevention programmes and community education. Due to limited resources, their services are unable to handle the needs. Leung (2009) explained the Hong Kong government has increase the budget on family service in the past years in order to recruit more staff to carry out the family support projects, nevertheless, the fund did not specifically designate to the use of handling cases of domestic violence. SWD had increase resources on the accommodation beds in the shelter from 180 in 2007-2008 to 260 in 2008-2009, and to prolong the working hour of the shelters so as to provide better service for the victims. But it is regrettable that there are too little resources for measures to combat gender-based violence in the home. The difficulties the victims face Researchers found that the abused women in Hong Kong had great difficulties in seeking help from neither police officers nor social workers. (Leung, 2008; Hong Kong Womens Coalition on Equal Opportunities, 2005; Tam and Tang, 2005) It is very common for the front-line professionals to endorse that wife abuse is a private matter or family issue. (Tang, 2005; Leung, 2008) Leung (2008) pointed out that abused women always had bad experience when they seek help from the police. Most of the police perceive violence against women as a family issue and pay less attention to it, they usually persuade the victims to close the files. Even though the police are willing to handle the case, for domestic violence usually seems as family disputes which may not involved in criminal act that the police could take action, the case would most be disregarded. On the other hand, some front-line social workers paid inadequate support and empathy to the victims. It is largely because of the common bias att itudes towards the abused women especially those came from Mainland China. Some other social workers use family therapy that emphasis unity of the family to handle domestic violence cases that force the abused woman to go back to the abuser. It is inevitable that rare of legislator, social worker or police may suggest the abused women to apply injunction order. It revealed that the front-line professionals were lack of gender sensitivity in dealing the cases. The abused women often found housing problem. Compassionate rehousing could only offer by the social workers of SWD which relied on strong social ground defined by the social workers themselves. However, most social workers had bias that those women were taking advantage during the process. The policies of CSSA restrict the application for those new arrivals that were lived in Hong Kong for less than seven years even those they suffered from abuse. How Hong Kong government handle Domestic Violence There was a great reaction in the society after Tin Sui Wai Family Tragedy happened in 2004 and the government was forced to deal with it. According to the Report of Review Panel on Family Services in Tin Shui Wai (2004), 25 suggestions were addressed, including the measures of three-tiered structure established by the police provide a graded response to investigating domestic violence. Relevant information is input into the Central Domestic Violence Database, district supervisory officers will look into those repeated cases occurring within 12 months. However, the prosecution rate of spouse battering remains low. In 2005, the police recorded 1,274 cases of spouse battering, in which 1,159 cases were arrested due to their criminal act, but only 10% were finally convicted. (Hong Kong Amnesty International, 2006) The Domestic Violence Ordinance (DVO) was enacted in 1986 in Hong Kong. At that time, the scope of definition of domestic violence is narrow to those live in matrimonial home, but excludes some other intimate relationships like co-habitees, separated partners or same sex partners. And the domestic violence is seemed as molest in this ordinance that restricted domestic violence to civil act. The limited scope of definition of domestic violence led to low utilization rate of DVO and low application of injunction order. Amendments of DVO came after more and more criticism in recent years in 2008 and 2009. Amendments includes the scope of definition of domestic violence extend to co-habitees, separated partners and same sex cohabitants and the Batterer Intervention Programme was enforced. The Womens Commission, a central mechanism plays a strategic role in advising Hong Kong Government on policy direction on women issues, addressed a policy paper in 2006 to outline a strategy to address victims empowerment, prevention of violence, timely and effective intervention, community education and support. The paper provided a lot of suggestions related to various aspects, including legislation reform, services, promotion, database, training for professionals, training on gender mainstream, early identification and intervention and community networks. The paper is comprehensive, yet the Commission has not legal authorities to implement the suggestions. In response to the rapid increase of domestic violence in past decades, Working Group on Combating Violence (WGCV), coordinated by the SWD, comprises representatives from related bureaux, government departments and non-governmental organizations, is formed for mapping out strategies to address the problem of spouse battering and sexual violence. (www.swd.gov.hk) Due to limited authority, the WGCV seems unable to coordinate the cooperation among different sectors of the government departments that no body function in policy making, coordination, and supervising (Leung, 2008) Leung (2008) criticized that the work done by the Hong Kong government in the fighting against domestic violence was unsatisfactory, the most critical problem is that the Hong Kong government and most of the policy makers did not view violence against women at home as a gender issue or human right issue but only family issue. For this reason, no comprehensive policy base on the gender mainstream was set to handle the domestic violence. (Leung, 2006; Hong Kong Womens Coalition on Equal Opportunities) The SWD report (2005) confirmed that domestic violence is a family matter by mentioned that family violence amongst those who used violence, such as low self-esteem, lack of empathy, alcohol or drug addiction, a history of abuse and neglect as a child, social isolation etc.. Such viewpoint makes people ignore how serious women abuse is in Hong Kong, and force the abused women to remain in the relationship. Actually domestic violence rooted in patriarchal ideology that is widespread over t he community that the violent act of the abuser is literally an offense of manipulation of male against women. Leung (2008) found that there are two main obstacles in putting the concept of gender mainstream into the domestic violence policies. The first one is that both the front-line professional and the policy makers were lack of gender sensitivity; secondly, inadequate resource and service coordination is put and insufficient staff and authority of coordinating framework to organize, and to coordinate and supervise the policies of domestic violence and its implementation. (Leung, 2008, P70) Besides, the government has not made any specific action plan on how to carry out the gender mainstreaming policy. Intervention strategies to combat the violence issue Legislation and judicial procedures It is necessary to review the current measures on domestic violence if we want to resolve the issue of violence against women in the long-run. In the aspect of legislation and judicial procedures, the government should take a deep review the law on domestic violence so that violence against women could be classified as criminal act. Simplify and improve the judicial protection orders like lengthen the duration of injunction order would be helpful. Also, improvement to the measures of support for victims of domestic violence would reinforce the prosecution. It is rather difficult for the victims to testify against their husbands face to face in the court. The Hong Kong Council of Social Service (2007) thus suggested providing supporting worker for the victims who would accompany with victims during the hearing, provide relevant legal information actively, and contact with the prosecutors and the court to keep updated the process of the case. Comprehensive information for victims is vi tal. For most of the victims do not know their right, it is rather helpful if the front-line professional would provide appropriate information and service such as shelters and application for injunction order. Resources It is certainly that government should enhance the availability and accessibility of the shelters at the same time. For the perpetrators, compulsory batterer intervention program (BIP) seems to be effective and should be enforced. On the other hand, Tin Sui Wai Family Tragedy revealed that professional training for handling domestic violence must be strengthened. As a matter of fact, social welfare agencies are lack of resources and support from the government to combat gender-based violence in the home. Therefore, it is unable for them to deepen the intervention and therapies on domestic violence. The government should add the specific matching grants of domestic violence. Although extra HKD 22 million has budgeted to recruit additional staff to implement family support projects, no designation for the fund to handle cases of domestic violence, in result, no advancement to the service on domestic violence. The change of ideology Other than resource and legislation and judicial procedures, the change of ideology is most significant. In recent years, governments in many western countries agreed that domestic violence is a gender issue and bring it to the criminal level. Similar arguments also found in Hong Kong (The Womens Commission, 2006; Leung, 2006, 2008) Leung (2008) stressed that the best way to protect women from abuse is to take the concept of gender mainstream into account when handling the issue of domestic violence. The concept of gender mainstreaming having been developed after the 1985 3rd World Conference on Women in Nairobi and was formally featured in the Platform for Action of the 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. (centers.law.nyu.edu) Gender mainstreaming is defined as the public policy concept of the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. (Un ited Nations, 1997) In response to the ineffective of WGCV, Leungs suggestions are worthy to mention. Leung (2008) suggested the government should adopt the definition of gender mainstreaming and its practice guidelines offered by international organizations; to develop a comprehensive policy of domestic violence and strategy execution according to gender mainstream; and to establish a high ranking coordinating body to work out an action plan for combating and preventing domestic violence; to improve the central data collection and the information dissemination systems; to consolidate the collaboration system between government and NGOs to ensure the resources had been used in combating against violence, to set up crisis intervention team with the collaboration of police and social workers; to meliorate the service coordination within different social service organizations; to strengthen the education on gender sensitivity for the frontline professionals. Reference Chan, K.L. (2000) The Impact of Family Violence to Women and their Children, Hong Kong: Hong Kong Christian Family Service and Hong Kong University, Department of Social Work and Social Administration. Leung, L.C. (2008) The possibilities of Gender Mainstreaming Domestic Violence Policy in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong, Department of Applied Social Science. (centers.law.nyu.edu/jeanmonnet/papers/00/000201) United Nations. Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997. A/52/3.18 September 1997. Backman, R., Coker, A. (1995). Police involvement in domestic violence: The interactive effects of victim injury, offenders history of violence, and race. Violence and Victims, 10(2), 91- 106. Other information Definitions of domestic violence Intimate partner violence (IPV), also termed domestic violence, is the most common form of violence against women. (Watt and Zimmerman, 2002) Wesley defined domestic violence as any behavior which is intended to cause unwanted harm, either physical (e.g., sexual or physical assault, and murder) or nonphysical (e.g., intimidation malicious insults) to a romantic partner. (Wesley et al, 2006) Adams gave a rather completed definition, the repeated, habitual or random use of aggression, whether physical, verbal, social, sexual, emotional, psychological or economic, by an individual on a partner or ex-partner in an existing or previous domestic relationship to force submission to that persons demands, thus depriving the partner of personal liberty and basic human rights. (Adam, 1998) Continuums of abuse Apart from the forms of abuse, we should consider the level of severity of abuse when we look into a case whether it is an abuse or not. The following table showed different levels of abuse from least to most severe. Assumed relationship between Patriarchal ideology and Attitude towards violence against women Sugarman and Frankel (1996) in their study examining how wide the patriarchy ideology molds the individuals experiences in terms of domestic violence, showed that previous researches on wife abuse done by Dobash and Dobash (1979), Kurz (1989) and Schechter (1982) conjectured that acceptance of traditional gender ideals and expectations about women serves to maintain subordination of women and is a primary source of violence against women (Sugarman and Frankel, 1996) Pagelow (1984) even suggested that traditional gender belief system could be retain since the assaultive husbands adopt the patriarchal conception of family. (Sugarman and Frankel, 1996) Findings verified that assaultive husbands showed more positive attitudes toward marital violence than nonassaultive husbands (Sugarman and Frankel, 1996) However, until 2005, the United Nations still found that women subjected to violence, including physical violence, psychological violence or sexual violence is a very common phenomenon. Research report Health Canada (1996) tended to believe that emotional abuse is based on power and control and characterized it into six forms: rejecting, degrading, terrorizing, isolating, corrupting/exploiting and denying emotional responsiveness Tomison and Tucci (1997) mentioned that emotional abuse is characterised by a climate or pattern of behaviour(s) occurring over time. Physical abuse always accompany with emotional abuse contains words and actions to break the womans spirit and destroy her self-image and self-esteem. (Mullender, 1996) It also includes imposing any kind of intimacy while the woman is still hurting from the violence, and physical or verbal harassment. (Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001, Alic, Margaret; Burstow; Mullender, 1996; Wikipedia) Most of the scholars explained violence against women from mainly two different views of theories, one is from the view of individual or family ground, and another is from the view of society or social structure. Psychological theories emphasis on assertively uncontrollable anger which is seen as rooted in unresolved family conflicts, primitive aggressive reactions, the submerged fear of the bully, insecure dependence on women, or any other form of internal stress (Mullender, 1996, summarized by Dobash and Dobash, 1992, p237) Feminists view that violence against women as a typical behavior and brooked by the society with the approval of social rules supporting male domination. (Adam, 1998) United Nation (1989) believed the interconnection of economic, social and political factors creating a structure placed the women with low economic status in a weakness position to violence within the household. Adam stressed that the masculine values in capitalist system apt to value women as mother, housewives or sexual objects Nayak et al. (2003) examined the attitudes of undergraduates from four countries toward violence against women, and discovered that groups with different values or attitudes also differ in violence acts, and would have different level of acceptance of violence. It refers not only the power of male in the household, but also refers to the dominance of men in social or cultural systems. Feminist theory stresses that the structure of modern cultural and political systems under patriarchy are totally ruled by men. (Wikipedia) (Castro, Ginette. American Feminism: a contemporary history, p. 31.) Obviously, violence against women seemed as normal under the development of dominant-submissive power relations. such that they have little or no independent status and transgressions outside the family and male authority expose them to swift retributions and confirm their vulnerability. Adams (1998) Researches demonstrated that patriarchy involves concepts of feminism and male domination in society and within the family. (Tang, 1999; Adam, 1998; Sugarmen and Frankel, 1996) The violence against women is the product of the interrelated and complex values wherein women are considered as inferior and subordinate to men, in result male is allowed to view female partners as his properties, and handling it within the privacy and autonomy of the family. (United Nation, 1989) Adams (1998) agreed with Mama that women are strongly fixed into the familial structure and hierarchic gender relations in the socialization process. Yllo also found that there is a positive correlation between more patriarchal social structure and higher level of women abuse. (Yllo, 1983, 1984) Research also found that traditional gender role soc